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Theory and Methodology of Bilingual and Multilingual Education
UDC1751
Prof. Zeinep Zhumatayeva, Nazarbayev University PhD stud. Meruyert Seitova, Hacettepe University
REFLECTION OF METAPHORS IN FACE2FACE, NEW HEADWAY AND INSIDE OUT (ADVANCED) COURSE BOOKS
Abstract
Recent developments in cognitive linguistics have highlighted the importance as well as ubiquity of metaphor in language. Metaphor is a means of expressing one thing in terms of something else. It provides us with a means of understanding the way language works, from the most common phrases to the most complex linguistic theory. Indeed much current linguistic theory ascribes to metaphor the organizing principle behind all communication.
In this paper, we classified metaphors from Face2Face, New Headway, and Inside Out (Advanced) coursebooks according to Newmark's typology of metaphors. Newmark identified six types of metaphors, which are dead, cliché, stock, recent, adapted, and original. And the examples of metaphors taken from the above mentioned coursebooks were arranged in consonance with these types of metaphors. In other words, we defined metaphors and revealed their types. The discussion will look into the way of using metaphors in the coursebooks in terms of comparison.
Keywords: coursebooks, metaphor, dead metaphors, cliché metaphors, stock metaphors, recent metaphors, adapted metaphors, original metaphors, ELT.
Introduction
Metaphorical language is a continuously discussed subject. It is apparent in everyday language, such as newspapers and on TV, not just randomly, but quite extensively. We use metaphors unconsciously all the time, when we think and when we talk.
Metaphor is a huge area of research that covers everything from single words like reflect or hit, to more emotive phrasal constellations such as fall head over heels for someone or the world is your oyster. Interestingly enough, the acquiring of longer metaphorical phrases does not necessarily mean they are harder to acquire than the single word metaphors. Just on their own like they are presented here, an acquiring may seem easy, but incorporated in a text of some sort, one may suddenly realize there is more than one option.
Thus, the huge amount of research done to metaphors from linguistic point of view. And among the theorists, Peter Newmark (1988) has done quite an extensive research on metaphorical language and his views and ideas on the subject will be applied in the present study. The study was based on Newmark's typology of metaphors because he discusses a number of functions of metaphor to define something more closely, decoration to show resemblance, to create emotive effect,
and lastly as a 'basic element of language where it later becomes dead or literal language'.
Review of literature
Coursebooks
Coursebooks have been well discussed by many researchers. In EFL contexts, coursebooks make up one of the major sources of language exposure for English learners (Dudley-Evans &St. John,2000).They provide the core materials for a language learning course and should include work on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, functions and the skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking (Tomlinson,2011). A large number of experts and educators claim that there are obvious advantages of using course book in all means. Hutchinson and Torres (1994) argue that during periods of change, a course book can serve as a tool for supporting teachers and as an instrument of modification and alteration. In brief, a course book provides teachers and learners with a structure of teaching and learning, methodological support and usage of language. The coursebooks are the main tools of learning and teaching the language. And metaphor is inevitable domain of language. Thus, this study investigates the extent to which metaphors are used in the ELT coursebooks and compared among three coursebooks.
Metaphor
To examine language materials from the perspectives of coursebook has become modern. Metaphors in coursebooks are used as a method to teach something at a deeper level. It helps the author to illustrate a point in the language of every day, the language of vernacular. We all understand what 'I just can't help myself' means, when we explain phenomenon in figures and symbols. We succeed in getting sense of metaphors because the most frequently used metaphors are taught in coursebooks. And another reason that metaphors are important to be used in coursebooks is that metaphors are part of cultural consciousness, formed over the course of time. What can be delivered from this, outside the classroom, the real world demands that language users are in some way culturally competent to an equal degree that they are linguistically competent and perhaps that one (language) cannot exist without the other (culture) and that this reality should therefore be mirrored in language teaching material produced for the classroom context.
Thus, researchers have come to consider metaphors to be not only research object but also a research tool. The interest in metaphor within linguistics emerged after the publication of Metaphors We Live By (Lakoff and Johnson 1980) in which it is claimed that metaphors are fundamental to the structuring of our thought and language, and that we frequently use the concepts and texts from one semantic area to think and talk about other areas. Two levels of metaphors are distinguished: conceptual metaphors and linguistic metaphors. The term 'conceptual metaphor' is used to refer to a connection between two semantic areas at the level of thought, such as the metaphorical connection that seems to exist between anger and fire for speakers of many languages (Lakoff 1987). When conceptual metaphors are referred to in writing, they are usually represented in upper case, for example, ANGER IS HEAT. Linguistic metaphors are the spoken or written realizations of a conceptual metaphor. In the case of ANGER IS HEAT, examples of linguistic metaphors include 'I grew hot under the collar' and 'She's got a fiery temper'.
Metaphors, referring to the idea that one entity stands for another, in a different situational context shape much of our experience of the world, usually, they vary in their power, familiarity and role in the process of making and transmitting meaning (Taylor, 2008).
"Metaphors may be didactic or illustrative devices, models or paradigms or root images that generate new models. Some metaphors are heuristic, whereas others constitute new meaning" (Klein, 1990).
Viewed as an aspect of speech and writing, metaphor carries concepts and is essential to language and the communication of abstract thoughts. According to Lakoff and Johnson (2003), metaphors are seen as the key to giving an adequate account of our understanding and expounding the world around us. In other words, metaphors serve the function to facilitate the understanding of the conceptual domains. Basically, language is active, generative and dynamic in the construction of understanding about reality, and that's why we come to understand the world through a process of "mental constructions" (Orteny,1989).Within this constructivist paradigm metaphors are significant, not only as a literal descriptions of reality, but also as a means of making sense of our concrete experience of the world and of explaining abstract concepts and theories. Rather than merely a rhetorical flourish, Lakoff and Johnson (2003) suggest metaphor as fundamental to our processes of meaning making.
"Metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language, but in thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature". As Crick mentioned, "the concept of learning power and learning how to learn must be understood and contextualized as part of a complex system in which the development of a learning identity, personal power and competencies for managing ourselves in the post-mechanical age are as important as the acquisition of knowledge." Therefore, the participants' metaphors might be considered as the power to enhance learning.
In short, the umbiquity use of metaphors suggests that it forms a core element of scaffolding in a reflective and embodied way, which means that the learner has encoded the language learning experience in ways that connect directly to their personel and unique contexts or environment, their individual experience, attitudes and feelings (Crick & Grushka,2009). The metaphor thus connects to the learners' real-life world, embodied through the collective experience of particular places and times to form "bridges" to develop learner identity of L2 self. Types of metaphors in Newmark.
Newmark proposes a typology of metaphors, which can be presented as follows:
Dead
Cliché
Stock
Recent
Adapted
Original
Dead metaphors 'metaphors where one is hardly conscious of the image, frequently relate
to universal terms of space and time, the main part of the body, general ecological features and the main human activities: for English, words such as 'space','field','line','top','bottom','foot', 'mouth', 'arm', 'circle', 'drop', 'fall', 'rise'(Newmark,1988)'.
Cliche metaphors 'metaphors that have perhaps temporarily outlived their usefulness, that are used as a substitute for clear thought, often emotively, but without corresponding to the facts of the matter. For example, apple of my eye, have food for thought and turn the corner, etc.
Take the passage 'The County school will in effect become not a backwater, but a break through in educational development which will set trends for the future.In this its traditional will help and may well become a jewel in the crown of the county's education.' This is an extract from a specious editional...' (Newmark, 1988).
Stock metaphors 'an established metaphor which in an informal context is an efficient and concise method of covering a physical and/or mental situation both referentially and pragmatically- a stock metaphor has a certain emotional warmth- and which is not deadened by overuse.'
Recent metaphors ' a metaphorical neologism, often 'anonymously' coined, which has spread rapidly in the SL. [.] it may be a metaphor designating one of a number of 'prototypical' qualities that constantly 'renew' themselves in language, e.g. fashionable, good, without money'(New-maark,1988)
Adapted metaphors 'metaphors which involve an adaptation of an existing (stock) metaphor.' Newmark gives the example 'the ball is a little in their court'.
Original metaphors 'metaphors which are non-lexicalized and non-adapted'(Newmark,1988) . The example above 'The past is an another country' is an example of original metaphor.
The study
The Face2Face Advanced coursebook from Cambridge University Press is a C1 level resource that is designed to develop an understanding of authentic language and provide the strategies and skills for independent learning. The student's book contains 30 lessons in 10 thematically linked units and also includes review sections, as well as a focus on writing. In addition, each unit is preceded by a preview section, allowing students to test themselves some aspects of grammar that are presented in the following unit. Supplementary activities, audio scripts, and a really clear language summary section of vocabulary and grammar cross-reference the material nicely. The language content is clearly shown at the beginning of each unit and correlates with the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR).
New Headway Advanced from Oxford University Press is the world's best - selling English course - a perfectly-balanced syllabus with a strong grammar focus, and full support at advanced level. Constant updates mean the material is always current, and with a huge range of components available. Inside out Advanced from Macmillan is a classroom tested English course designed to develop real life communicative skills and powers of self-expression. Inside Out provides a thoroughly enjoyable and lively course for adults and young adults built around structured work 46
on grammar and lexis, planned speaking tasks and engaging writing and listening texts.The main grammar and language functions presented clearly and practiced through anecdote activities and personalization.
Methodology
Data Collection
45 identified metaphors were used as data for this paper. The metaphors were extracted from Face2Face Advanced, New Headway Advanced and Inside Out Advanced coursebooks.
Data Analysis
The identification of metaphors for this study was investigated in two main ways as listed below:
The identification of Metaphors
Categorization and Analysis of Metaphors
Method
The "Metaphor Identification Procedure" (MIP) was employed in the metaphor identification process. Once the metaphors are identified, the next step will be to classify each metaphor according to Newmark's typology of metaphors.
Results and discussion
This section of the paper presents the findings and outcomes of the data analysis of this study.
Research Aim 1
To reveal the examples of metaphors in 'Face2face (Advanced) Cambridge university press','New Headway (Advanced) Oxford University Press and Inside Out (Advanced) Macmillan.
Tables 1, 2 and 3 below demonstrate the presence of metaphors in all three coursebooks and metaphors were given in list with their meanings.
Table 1 Metaphors from Face2face Advanced
N Metaphors Meanings
1. Grill someone To ask a lot of questions
2. To have a warm welcome friendly and affectionate
3. To crack under pressure become very stressed because of work pressure
4. Time flies pass very quickly
5. To freeze stopped moving and became completely still
6. To dawn on To understand
7. To be a bright lad clever and quick to learn
8. To be flooded with something filled with large numbers or amounts
9. To storm something To attack
Table 2 Metaphors from New Headway Advanced
N Metaphors Meanings
1. Must dash must go
2. Bitten off more than one can chew give oneself more work than one can manage
3. Tied up very busy
4. Sleepy where not much happens
5. Picked up improved
6. Tighten one's belts make a lot of economies
7. Keeping one's heads above water just about coping
8. Snowed under have an awful lot of work to do
9. Time flies time goes so fast
10. Slaving away working extremely hard
11. Great strides very significant, and rapid progress
12. To point the finger at to put the blame on
13. Have a few hiccups have a few small problems
14. Break one's heart hurt someone very deeply
15. Take one's breath away to leave someone stunned and unable to speak
16. Scare one for life cause someone permanent psychological damage
17. Came to me in a flash it suddenly occurred to me
18. Glowing with pride visibly very, very proud
19. Being overshadowed appearing inferior in comparison to
20. Stormy relationship a relationship in which people row a lot
21. Blazing rows very angry rows with lots of shouting
22. Blossomed developed successfully
23. In floods of tears crying a lot, uncontrollably
24. The root of the fundamental cause of
25. Haven't the foggiest idea really don't know or understand
26. Going round in circles making no progress at all
27. Followed in his father's footsteps did what his father did (professionally)
28. Rambling speech long-winded and poorly planned speech
29. Sparked one's interest awakened one's interest
Table 3 Metaphors from Inside Out Advanced
N Metaphors Meanings
1. Have a sit down have a short rest or break
2. A bite to eat a snack or a light meal
3. Something catches my eye I have my attention drawn to something
4. To live next door to be neighbors
5. Shout and rant Complain angrily about something
6. All sweetness and light Smiling and happy
7. Time flies Time goes very fast
As shown in the results above, 9 metaphors were found from Face2Face Advanced, 29 metaphors from New Headway Advanced and 7 metaphors from Inside Out Advanced. The three coursebooks show remarkable differences both in total numbers of metaphors and in the clustering of metaphors in the six domains. However, there is the case of similarity between coursebooks, where the metaphor 'time flies' occurs in all three coursebooks. I think it is because of its frequently usage and being a dead metaphor.
The common trait of all metaphorical language is that it is figurative, i.e. has some kind of extended or transferred meaning- a secondary meaning (Alm-Aryius, 2003,p.9). It is a figurative way of speech and it could be referred to as non-literal language. According to Newmark (1988, p.106) any word can be a metaphor rand to find out if it is, the primary meaning has to be matched against the linguistic and cultural context. For instance, consider the adjective in these two sentences (1) it was a dark and stormy night. (2) John and Marry had a stormy relationship. Clearly, the same word acquires different meanings depending on the context. In the first sentence the word 'stormy' is used in its direct meaning, stormy-affected by storm; but in the second example the word 'stormy' is used in it derivative meaning, stormy relationship-a relationship where people row a lot.
Research Aim 2
To investigate which type of metaphors used in the coursebooks according to Newmark's typology of metaphors. Table 4 below depicts the number of each type of metaphor that were identified in the data.
Table 4 Type and number of metaphors in Face2face Advanced, New Headway Advanced, Inside Out Advanced
N Types of metaphor Face2face New headway Inside Out
Advanced Advanced Advanced
1. Dead metaphor 2 5 1
2. Cliché metaphor - 3 1
3. Stock/standard metaphor 6 21 5
4. Adapted metaphor - - -
5. Recent metaphor 1 - -
6. Origional metaphor - - -
Analysis reveals a large number of stock metaphors for all coursebooks compared to the other 5 types of metaphors. It is clear that the use of some types of metaphors in the coursebooks are limited.
Dead metaphors
The eight examples of dead metaphors have been identified from three coursebooks but the dead metaphor 'time flies' occurred in all three coursebooks. So, six examples of dead metaphors that
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are going to be discussed in this section are all semantic. The examples are the following:
(1)Time flies, (2) freeze, (3) break one's heart, (4) sleepy, (5) the root of, (6)to live next door
In example (1) , the verb fly is used in its secondary meaning that is distinguishable from its basic, literal meaning, it is metaphorical (Alm Aryius, 2003,p.12).The main primary meaning of the verb fly is 'to move in or pass through the air with wings.' And it's metaphorical meaning 'to go very fast.'
In example (2), the verb freeze in its primary meaning means 'to become hardened into ice or into a solid body'; however its metaphorical meaning is 'to stop moving and become completely still'.
In example (3), break one's heart its metaphorical meaning has become so familiar over time that its literal meaning is forgotten. It is used in its meaning of 'to hurt someone very deeply'.
In example (4), the word sleepy means 'to be ready to sleep or drowsy' in its direct meaning, as well as its metaphorical meaning is calm.
In examples (5) and (6), the root of has its metaphorical meaning of fundamental cause of something, and to live next door is used in the meaning of to be neighbors. This shows that a simple word may not always be simple to understand. According to Newmark (1988) the problem is not finding the actual word in the target language, but to choose the most suitable one, since metaphors defy literal meaning and thus offer choices.
Cliché metaphors
Four cliché metaphors revealed from three coursebooks, are as follows:
Tied up, bicked up, Scare one for life, Something catches my eye
Tied up, its primary meaning is 'to bind, fasten, or attach with a cord, and its metaphorical meaning is 'to be very busy'.
Picked up, primary meaning is 'to choose or select from among a group', however its metaphorical meaning is 'improved'.
The verb 'scare' means 'to frighten', as in example 'scare one for life' means
'cause someone permanent psychological damage'.
The verb 'catch' means 'to capture', however as in example 'something catches my eye' its metaphorical meaning is 'I have my attention drawn to something'.
Cliché metaphors have similarities with dead metaphors, as well as with stock metaphors. New-mark (1988) tries to distinguish them by saying that clichés are usually made up by two types of stereotyped collocations; figurative adjective + literal noun or figurative verb + figurative noun. They are similar to dead metaphors in that they have been overused and very often, their secondary figurative meaning can be found in dictionaries.
Stock metaphors
Thirty two examples of stock metaphors have been identified in this study. They are: To have warm welcome, To crack under pressure, To dawn on, To be bright lad, To be flooded with something, To storm something, Must dash, Bitten off more than one can chew, Tighten one's belts, 50
Keeping one's heads above water, Snowed under, Slaving away, Great strides, To point the finger at, Have a few hiccups, Take one's breath away, Came to me in a flash, Glowing with pride, Being overshadowed, Blazing rows, Blossomed, In floods of tears, Haven't the foggiest idea, Going round in circles, Followed in his father's footsteps, Rambling speech, Sparked one's interest, A bit to eat, Shout and rant, All sweetness and light, Have a sit down,
Stock metaphors (or standard metaphors) are figures of language that are widely recognized as idioms, lexicalized phrasal metaphors that are established in the language (Dickins,2005, p.234). They are often culturally linked to the language and therefore they are specific to each language. Also, they have certain emotional warmth and are not, as opposed to most of the dead and cliché metaphors, deadened by overuse (Newmark,1988,p.108).
Recent metaphor
Recent metaphors can be best described as metaphorical neologisms. A neologism is a newly coined word or an existing word that has acquired a new meaning (Newmark, 1988, p.140). Consequently, a recent metaphor consists of a word or phrase with a metaphorical meaning that has recently been coined. Thus, only one example of recent metaphor has been identified in the study. It is 'to grill someone', it does not mean 'to cook someone', and its metaphorical meaning is 'to ask a lot of questions'.
Adapted and Original metaphors
Any examples of adapted and original metaphors have not been identified in the study. We argue that it is because original metaphors are a group of metaphors that are quoted or created by the writer and can occur mostly in fiction. In addition, the examples of metaphors in Face2Face were used in different contexts like in headings, in the text however, the authors of New Headway Advanced and Inside Out Advanced included metaphor in the units and prepared exercises to do.
Conclusion
The aim of this study was to identify metaphors from ELT coursebooks like, Face2Face Advanced, New Headway Advanced and Inside Out Advanced, as well as categorize the identified metaphors according to Newmark's typology of metaphors. By using Newmark's typology of metaphors, forty-five metaphors were picked out and divided into dead, cliché, stock, recent, adapted and original metaphors. The major theories that were applied in the study were the works of Lakoff and Johnson, and Newmark. Newmark has done most extensive research on metaphor. However, Lakoff and Johnson's study was the overall basis for metaphor research.
This paper deals with a pilot study of the extent to which metaphors are used in the ELT coursebooks. The large number examples in one or two types of metaphors (stock and dead) and the absence of any metaphor examples (adapted, original, recent) in more than one category indicate that the coursebooks teach only stock metaphors. And it is because stock metaphors have active authentic function in language and it is very important in teaching a language. Also the coursebook authors do not repeat the same metaphors in their work although the coursebooks' levels are the same.
Besides the different theories that this study was based on, metaphors play a very important role
in learning a language. Because when we learn the language, we learn words, and "words mean what the dictionary says they mean but, at the same time they mean something else" (Neubert,1999, p.123). In short, the ubiquitous use of metaphor suggests that it forms a core element of scaffolding in a reflective and embodied way, which means that the learner has encoded the language learning experience in ways that connect directly to their personnel and unique contexts or environment, their individual experience, attitudes and feelings (Crick & Grushka, 2009).
Although only a small number of metaphors were used as a data for this study, the findings had very interesting outcomes and caused some problems, which will be meaningful to further research. It would be interesting to extend this study to a qualitative research where all metaphors identified from the above mentioned coursebooks would be categorized according to Lakoff and Johnson's metaphor types (structural, orientational, and ontological) and Newmark's metaphor typology (dead, cliché, stock, recent, adapted and origional) in terms of comparison.
References
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7. .Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (2003). Metaphors we live by. University of Chicago Press. Neubert, Albrecht, Words and Texts - Which are translated? A study in Dialectics, Word, text, translation, Liber Amicorum for Peter Newmark, G. Anderman & M. Rogers.
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9. Orteny, A. (1979). Metaphor: A multidimensional problem. In A. Orteny (Ed.), Metaphor and thought. London: Cambridge University Press.
10. Robinson, N., Warwick, L., Naylor, H., Stirling ,J., Thaine, C., Cunningham, G., Bell ,J.(2009)..Face2face Advanced, Cambridge University Press Soars, J., Soars L., Falla, T. .(2003). New Headway Advanced Oxford University Press Taylor, N. (2008). Metaphor, discourse and identity in adult literacy policy. Literacy, 42(3) Tomlinson, B. (2006). Localizing the global: Matching materials to the context of learning. In J. Mukundan (Ed.), Readings on ELT materials II. (pp. 1-16). Malaysia: Pearson Longman.
Information on authors
Prof. Zeinep Zhumatayeva,
Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan. zzhumatayeva@nu.edu.kz
PhD stud. Meruyert Seitova,
Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey. miko80@,mail.ru
