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Linguistics
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UDK 811.111'271:130.2:316.7(73=111+8)2 DOI: 10.29013/AJH-21-7.8-15-22
A. B. YUNATSKA1
1 Zaporizhzhya National University, Zaporizhzhya, Ukraine
RECOVERING NATIVE AMERICAN IDENTITY: INTERCULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY
Abstract
Objective: to identify the intercultural and linguistic markers of Native American identity reconsideration from the current sociocultural perspective of the US diversity and national unity.
Methods: historical and intercultural analysis, ethnolinguistic, semantic and discourse analysis, contextual analysis, selection and sampling, comparison, and generalization.
Results. The research addresses Native American cultural identities as part of the U.S. kaleidoscope of cultures and American National Identity. The author explores how Native Americans today reclaim their image power through unmasking and denouncement of existing social attitudes and gross misrepresentation of their heritage in media, pseudo-traditions, and specific cultural vocabulary. Through the prism of interplay between revival of authentic heritage traditions in contemporary tribal communities the article reveals the core segments of Native American path toward social change: through opposition to dominant Anglo values, alternate and authentic representation of indigenous cultures, decolonization, de-romanticized approach to long-lasting traditions, direct verbalized associations with Euro-American traditions claiming to appreciate inclusion and diversity and disclosure of the existing myths.
Scientific novelty: for the first time based on newly selected data the paper negotiates and analyses Native American cultural identities as part of American National Identity viewed from the modern sociocultural perspective of the US diversity and national unity; the author explores the newly outlined intercultural and linguistic indicators of the reconsidered, de-romanticized and decolonized vision of the 21st century diversity.
Practical significance: the main findings, results and conclusions of the research can be used in scholarly work and teaching, specifically, in theoretical and practical courses addressing indigenous and identity studies, critical thinking, multicultural issues, cultural awareness and intercultural communication; research in the fields of Sociocultural and Linguistic Anthropology and American Studies can be facilitated through the use of the given article.
Keywords: Native American communities, Decolonization, Symbolic meaning, Cultural bump, Intercultural communication, Empowerment, Verbalized associations, High-context cultures.
For citation: A. B. Yunatska. Recovering Native American Identity: Intercultural and Linguistic Perspectives on Diversity // Austrian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 2021, № 9-10. - P. 15-22. DOI: https://doi. org/10.29013/AJH-21-9.10-15-22
Introduction
While American people are proud of their diverse multicultural society, their political and cultural multiplicity and how it has reconciled with the national unity, they often treat indigenous population of their country with a "one-size-fits-all" approach. In fact, the indigenous peoples ofthe United States constitute a variety ofseparate and diverse nations and cultures; however they are often viewed as one single homogeneous culture. In addition, indigenous tribal communities seem to be disregarded or even "erased" by a rhetoric mainly focusing on white and black people or current immigrants with little mention of the original inhabitants of the United States. At the same time, Native peoples that inhabited North America six centuries ago earlier formed more than 350 distinct communities and spoke more than 250 different languages.
At the core of the paper is the concept of survival, adaptation, resistance, and persistence of Native American tribal communities (particularly Narragansett Native American Tribe) in effective self-representation of their culture. The opportunity for new concepts to flourish as complete opposites of those that were historically formed throughout centuries as dominant ideas ofEuro-American cultural communities are emphasized in this research.
By the example of indigenous tribes (namely Nar-ragansett Native Tribe) the author explores how Native Americans today reclaim their image power through unmasking and denouncement of existing social attitudes and gross misrepresentation of their heritage, and regain empowerment. The concept of survival, adaptation, resistance, and persistence is studied via authentic verbal and non-verbal self-representation of Native cultures.
The attention turned to the captivating Native history and a number of cultural issues in this domain, because covering the American culture and society topics academics normally focus on cultural communities that are large in number rather than on small groups. Nevert heless it should be noted that the United States multiculturalism is not only the result ofimmigration, but also diversity ofNa-tive American tribes that lived in its territory. Apart from that, 'small' does not mean 'less important' and I argue that not only diversity, but also authenticity and indigeneity hold great significance in the United States culture.
While Native Americans are indigenous to this land and many of them take up the challenging task of educating people about their heritage, there is a huge dis-
crepancy in the immense role of these peoples for the United States and how they are misunderstood and misrepresented by the mainstream society. There is another common belief that indigenous people no longer exist and the Native American cultural legacy is a matter of history. At the same time, Native American nations have their past and present as well as continue striving for a better life of their future generations and do live in the contemporary world.
There is a great number of complicated and controversial issues concerning the present of Native Americans. Even the way we can refer to these peoples is a subtle and complex issue. The preference is definitely given to the tribal affiliation (Hopi, Narragansett, Navajo, Mohican, Yaqui, Pequot, etc.) as these peoples form distinct nations within one large nation. Appropriate generic names would be Native Americans, First Peoples, and First Nations, while indigenous people and American Indians are less preferable terms, because the first term is too general and the second was imposed by the European colonizers and does not imply the indigeneity.
Native American Identity has been researched from a general indigenous perspective [e.g. 1; 2; 3 4; 5; 6; 7], including truly controversial visions of Native Americans as incapable of understanding core principles of ecology [8]. As Native American Identity is multifaceted, it is important to not only differentiate between different tribes, but understand the consciousness, philosophy and identity of each of them, because they profoundly influenced their survival and persistence techniques.
Native American Identity
Negotiating identity is complex and quite complicated. Generically, identity can be defined as «qualities of a person or group that make them different from others»1. In this paper identity is understood as shared values, language, beliefs, customs, shared practices; identity is basically, who a person is and how they think about themselves. First of all, a person's cultural identity is connected to their beliefs, values, ethnicity, cultural norms and language.
Native peoples in the United States have managed to maintain distinct cultural identities. This has led to the intercultural conflict between the American mainstream and these minority groups. The paper traces the specificity of the "domestic conflict" between the tribal communities and Anglo-Americans, based on the state-
1 Cambridge Dictionary of American English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. P. 430.
Narragansett Native tribe
The Narragansett Native tribe historically inhabited the state of Rhode Island in New England; about 1 percent of people living there today are Native American. Archaeological evidence establishes their presence in Rhode Island for approximately 10,000 years. Fundamental sociohistorical research has been done by scholars to study their resistance to the Puritans during the colonial time [e.g. 9; 10], but there has not been an in-depth complex exploration of the Narragansett authenticity and identity in the 21st century. Being evidently a small tribe, the Narragansett people are ardently recovering their identity and teach their children to preserve their culture. They are the only federally recognized tribe in Rhode Island these days and were the most powerful indigenous tribe in southern New England in the 17th century. The Narragansett history is the history of decimation, erasure and forced assimilation, survival, resistance, and persistence of Native peoples in the Northeast of the United States in general and in Rhode Island in particular (the Great Swamp Fight of 1675, "detribaliza-tion" of the late 19th century, etc).
As most other Native American tribes, Narragan-sett Natives can be qualified as endangered species as there are approximately 2500 tribe members living in the United States today and about 400-500 more outside of the United States. However, the Narragansett people managed to preserve their traditional culture very well "passing it down from generation to generation and are even stronger today". Both Narragansett Native men and women have fought with honor in every war starting with the United States revolution, were considered warriors and protected smaller tribes. Today "tribal members have careers in every profession including doctors, lawyers, teachers, artists, as well as fisherman, lobsterman, cooks, and masons"2.
Beyond any doubt, the keen interest in the personality of Roger Williams, the first European settler of Rhode Island and the 9th president of the Colony of Rhode Island and the Providence Plantations is stipulated by his role the 17th century relationships between Natives and Europeans. R. Williams fervently believed in tolerance and practically spent a lifetime trying to better understand the Narragansett tribe showing a great example of
1 A Conversation With Native Americans on Race | Op-Docs, The New York Times, 2018, retrieved from: https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=siMal6QyblE
2 Narragansett Indian tribe: Reservations and Wompesu, retrieved from: URL: http://narragansettindiannation.org/ history/perseverance/
ments given by Native American respondents representing various tribal communities in the United States. The mentioned conflict is actualized via specific communicative strategies and tactics used by the speakers.
In a conversation on race, a Native American respondent stresses that even some tribal names originate just because speakers with Anglo affiliation "cannot pronounce the real name" and generate "government's name" (e.g. Apache). This results in certain detachment between the indigeneity and the mainstream. The Native American rhetoric is full of resistance, authenticity and resilience: "They would tell....how awesome it is that I've decided to be part of my culture, but it hits me really weird, because I haven't decided to be a part of my culture. I live it every day'; "to me being indigenous is to have an intimate an interconnected relationship to a homeland "; "land tied every aspect of who we are"; "being Native in a city is ...a daily reminder of your people's erasure", "preconceived notion that all Native Americans are dead"; "we were treated like animals"; "... the Native Americans ... are the only group who have to prove their nativeness"; "we've taken huge steps to decolonizing; that proof comes from people being able to have the opportunities to speak their language, to be on their ancestry land", "my name means that my family survived"; "my existence is resistance"1.
One of the ways to explore the way Native Americans recover identity is to observe their discursive specificity. Though appreciating the national unity, Native Americans are likely to retain their heritage ethic and through empowerment evidently stress that the unity should reconcile with cultural diversity. The research has shown the indicator and result of the reconsidered and strengthened authenticity is the newly generated dual culture discourse.
Descendants of indigenous people in the United States are English-speakers. They use English as a public language in all spheres of everyday life. At the same time, there is one more, private language (their tribal language) they may use in their family life contexts. Thus, Native American identity is dual and complex. The current research addresses the transition of the Native American cultural identity through the prism of biculturalism and bilingualism; the author analyzes the data selected from the documentaries on tribal cultures and the Native American discourse of the tribal interviewees.
intercultural competence and awareness. He practically followed the key principles of intercultural communication and, for a white colonial settler of the 17th century, Roger Williams had extraordinary respect for tribal rights in terms of land owning and culture.
Williams acted as a true diplomat, defender of Indian rights and a qualified anthropologist; he fully acknowledged the Native American connectedness to their land and resources. These relationship, intercultural communication, respect for the linguistic and cultural identity and fruitful cooperation resulted in a book A Key into the Language of America (1643), in which Williams wrote about the Narragansett language and culture.
Curiously, Williams did not approve of mass Indian conversions into Christianity and never violated their right to worship the Great Spirit or Creator. Williams had an unusual balance between admiration of Native Americans and understanding their human imperfections. It should be admitted that it is a rare accomplishment and it is worth looking back into the 17th century history, because Americans are certainly one of the emotive (though low-context and individualist) nations and should learn (like many other nations) how to recover this balance. We often really do not learn from history and as a result of changing political regimes and ideologies either create evil and hurtful stereotypes or a 'panegyric'. Demonstration of emotions and subjectivity across languages and cultures is extremely helpful and of crucial importance for the exploration of diversity, commonalities and universals [11,121].
I would like to wrest the "Identity" subject out of stale cliché, exploring a small, but very strong community and connect their story with the general notion of American indigeneity and American National identity. To see the Narragansett tribe's representations of themselves, one could visit the Tomaquag Museum, the only Native American-operated museum in the region and a community center for Native Americans from all over southern New England located in Charlestown, Rhode Island.
Social Attitudes and Cultural Appropriation
Yet another problem that should be investigated in terms of Native Americans is cultural appropriation and perpetuation of negative stereotypes and hurtful social attitudes. "A common belief in the contemporary United States, often unspoken and unconscious, implies that ev-
eryone has a right to use Indians as they see fit; everyone owns them"1. Many nations have sacred objects and they should be treated with respect - for example, feathers are an inherent right to Native Americans, but feathers as a headgear have been thoughtlessly and disrespectfully exploited by popular culture and media of the mainstream. Indigeneity in the U.S. has encountered either the problem of hurtful stereotyping or 'invisibility'.
Blind stereotyping of peoples through sports teams' mascots (e. g. Washington Redskins, Chief Wahoo, Chief Nokahoma) was condemned in a witty, but controversial way by Oscar Arredondo in his exhibit 'walk a mile in my shoes' (before you judge a person, you should experience their life) where he 'pays back' the mainstream through caricaturing immigrant cultures the way they caricature Indians. The point is that the visual identity should not be constructed by those external to the community. The important things are what members of a particular tribe want non-Natives and other people outside of their community to know about them and their culture.
In Arturo Islas's "Thanksgiving Border Crossing" a young girl asks her father a tough question:
"On the way to the bridge, Josie made the mistake of asking her father if they were aliens..."
This makes Sancho (father) very emotive when he responds:
"Mexican and Indian people were in this part of the country long before any gringos, Europeans,. or anyone
else decided it was theirs.......I do not ever want to hear
you use that word in my presence again. About anybody: We are not aliens. We are American citizens of Mexican heritage. We are proud of both countries and have never and will never be that word you just said to me" [12, P. 516].
The extended response given by Sancho and his latter avoidance of the slur aliens certainly helps to promote intercultural awareness due to embracing cultural values of indigenous and immigrant peoples. Defending the right of Mexican and Native American people to the Ameri-canness, Sancho is still not concerned by certain facts of cultural appropriation:
"The girls, wearing colored headdresses they had made in art class, were acting out the Pocahontas story and reciting from "Hiawatha" in a hodgepodge of Indian sentiment that forced Sancho to agree in order to keep them quiet" [12, P. 512].
1 Hirschfelder A. and Molin P. Stereotyping Native Americans, 2018. Retrieved from: URL: https://www.ferris.edu/ HTMLS/news/jimcrow/native/homepage.htm
While it is considered to be cultural appropriation to wear Native American symbolic outfits, feather headgear, etc., because it is particularly offensive to Native Americans and misrepresents their values, the traditional cultural segments of Thanksgiving have been taught in American public schools through the Anglo perspective.
Symbolic meaning: Native American vocabulary
American English has been enriched by the vocabulary of Native American languages, including Narragansett, Al-gonquian language derivative (e.g. Caucus, powwow, qua-hog, sachem (a chief of a Native American tribe); there are Indianisms that turned into offensive misogynist and racist slurs (e.g. squaw). It is noteworthy that Native American words often signify sacred objects that long ago became inseparable from certain tribal cultures. For the Narragansett Indians and other traditional Eastern Native cultures it is wampum, which carries on an age-old tradition of creating objects ofbeauty (beads) and symbolism with quahog shells. Wampum in American slang has acquired an extra meaning "money", while it is not, because Native Americans knew nothing about money prior to the European settlement and when Europeans referred to wampum as 'Indian money,' it was highly offensive and it still is.
The use of the word Indian as a synonym for 'bogus' and set expressions 'Indian giver' and 'Indian gift' (imply rudeness and a lack of generosity) was rooted in a series of cultural misunderstandings. These derogatory nominations came into being as a result ofhistorical cultural bumps and lack of intercultural awareness. Unlike Roger Williams, settler colonists were not likely to try to understand the diverse Native cultures, but rather used their cultural standards while encountering those cultures [13; 14; 15; 16].
It is noteworthy that, highly polychronic, high-context tribal cultures put the main focus on tasks or activities (and not schedules) and had longer powwows rather than scheduled and regulated meetings in accordance with the Anglo time-management. Apart from that, tribal nations were initially collectivist cultures in which one's strongest identity is with the tribe they belong to and the individual identity is less important; they shared a high degree of commonality of viewpoints with their immediate tribal cultures.
The idea of the national unity puts the indigenous people in a position, in which they may need to find a
balance between the values of their original tribal communities and the US culture, predominantly shaped by Anglo values.
Apart from direct decimation and displacement of indigenous peoples, the U.S. government policy significantly contributed to the loss of Native culture (e.g. the Religious Crimes Code prohibited American Indian ceremonial life, destroyed or confiscated sacred objects, under threat of imprisonment)1, there were numerous attempts to "detribalize" the Narragansetts and other Natives, nevertheless, they continued to persevere, maintaining traditional political and spiritual leadership, holding monthly meetings and powwows, and transmitting their language, lifeways, spirituality, and culture.
The symbolic meaning of the word warrior is more than that of a brave soldier; a warrior is a fighter in life, it is a consciousness and part of Native American identity: "... The warrior can find strength within, remember there is a warrior within that can rise above"2.
Different perspectives on Thanksgiving
It is common knowledge that "in the spring of1610, in what some consider the "first American Thanksgiving," colonists in Jamestown, Virginia, held a thanksgiving prayer service after English supply ships arrived with much-needed food". "In 1939, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt declared November 23, the next-to-last Thursday of the month, to be Thanksgiving Day"3.
Reconsideration of cultural appropriation and decolonization cover multiple spheres of life. Consequently, many National holidays (e.g. 4th of July and Thanksgiving) are not celebrated in a usual way. Instead of observing Christopher Columbus Day (a Federal Holiday since the 1930 s), several US states celebrate Indigenous Peoples Day due to the history of colonialism and discrimination. For example, Narragansett people do not celebrate the traditional Thanksgiving in November, but have their own Thanksgiving days instead. Specifically several Thanksgivings are celebrated during the year by this community (e.g. the Green Corn Thanksgiving, the Cranberry Thanksgiving, and the Strawberry Thanksgiving). The point is to mark and celebrate these events the way their ancestors did before the colonial settlers. The occasions are certainly connected with respective harvest of corn, cranberry or strawberry, while the idea of
1 Zotigh D. Last real Indians, 2019. Retrieved from: URL: https://lastrealindians.com/news/2019/7/4/celebrating-our-resiliency-by-earth-feather-sovereign
2 Cecelia Rose LaPointe, 2017. Retrieved from: URL: https://www.anishinaabekwe.com/blog/poem-warrior
3 Thanksgiving. Library of Congress. Retrieved from: URL: https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/thanksgiving/
the first encounter with the colonial settlers in the 17th century is not put in the center.
Discrimination and its outcomes as well as the opposition to hidden social exclusion can be observed and effectively researched through discursive and linguistic markers as well as communication strategies [17; 18; 19; 20; 21; 22; 23; 24; 25].
In the 2015 project Native American people, representing different tribes needed to verbalize and talk out their associations with Thanksgiving1. The vocabulary they used can be divided into three categories:
1. Highly negative.
2. Friendly and positive.
3. Neutral or technical.
At the same time, critical analysis shows that the Native American perspectives on Thanksgiving are different from the traditional Euro-American vision. Vocabulary used by the Native American respondents as direct association with Thanksgiving was: Highly negative: lies, total sadness, creation myths, what we lost, inaccurate, colonization, terrible, brutal, (horrible) atrocity, massacre, romanticized; Friendly and positive: family, celebration, warm, thankful; Neutral or technical: turkey and white pilgrims.
As a result of this research, it is clear how important it is to address different cultural perspectives. There are Americans (of all ethnic, racial backgrounds) who do not embrace the holiday and give alternate responses to Thanksgiving. Many respondents think that the holiday is ambiguous and the ambiguity requires the tradition to be reconsidered, de-romanticized, and decolonized.
When representatives of different tribal communities say that Thanksgiving is pretty much about the creation myths and that the holiday makes them ponder over "who they are", "what they lost" they reclaim their history, heritage and identity. Saying "they slaughtered millions of us", one respondent uses the pronoun us. In their rhetoric the tribal communities' members are likely to divide Americans into in-groups (indigenous people) and outer-groups (settler colonists).
More complicated ambiguous nature of the holiday is outlined in the characteristics "a day for football and lots of good eating", "I try not to think what it really represents"; "I like the overall idea of Thanksgiving, but not what it actu-
ally comes from". Some people may be more flexible and abide the traditional Thanksgiving, but the point then is to overlook the reality and the cruel story behind it. These associations also imply the ambiguity of the holiday - the idea of giving thanks is great and rewarding, while the historical background is scary.
Activists in New England today have a great commitment to increase support to students as they understand that everyone in the United States, except for Native Americans, came from a different country. Proponents of diversity and inclusion stress that many prestigious Universities located in former Native American territories exist today exclusively because of its settler colonial displacement of indigenous people and occupation of their territories [26, 116].
Native American people have a strong connection to their land, they "inherit an innate sensibility about the world, a consciousness, that developed separately and apart from the experience of other peoples who were not indigenous to this land". It is a worldview that is inherent in Native American tribal traditions, most of which were handed down orally in the tribal languages2.
The given research promotes cultural awareness and celebrates diversity, defining the place of authenticity and indigeneity in contemporary American 'mosaic' and exploration of Native American worldview.
Conclusions
Racial attitudes cannot be part of identity construction, though it may provoke resistance and persistence techniques characteristic of Native peoples. Cultural change however is part of cultural identity and Native communities do not remain static. In the 21st century the most effective tools and ways of taking action and struggling with misrepresented portrayals of Native American communities in media and entertainment are used. Through combatting silly characterizations and harmful stereotypes tribal communities can reclaim their image power.
The culturally marked vocabulary and discursive power formations in Native American discourse can serve as steps toward empowerment and successful interaction with western social institutions.
Native American identity and self-determination are recovered and constructed; the crucial constituents their
1 Thanksgiving. Native Americans. One Word Cut. Available at: URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jGc34FeFqH0
2 Horse P. G. Native American Identity. Retrieved from: URL: https://convention.myacpa.org/houston2018/wp-content/ uploads/2017/11/Horse_2005.pdf
Linguistics
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Austrian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 9 - 10 (2021)
ISSN 2310-5593 (Print) / ISSN 2519-1209 (Online)
identity comprises are: language, locality, religion, etc.; their generic core features of mentality are: indigenous sensibilities, their vision of nature, creativity, etc.
Indigeneity has been misunderstood and misrepresented by the typical social attitudes about Native Americans in the U.S., there has been verbal and non-verbal stereotyping of Native Americans and their sacred symbols and integral features have been exploited in popular media and social life.
Native tribes (e.g. the Narragansett tribe) mostly represent collectivist, high-context and polychronic societ-
ies and are likely to have personal self-concepts of their Indianness and belonging to their tribal heritage. Thus, it is important to increase the knowledge of Native Americans beyond a colonial perspective.
The core segments of Native American path toward social change are: through opposition to dominant Anglo values, alternate and authentic representation ofindigenous cultures, decolonization, de-romanticized approach to long-lasting traditions, direct verbalized associations with Euro-American traditions claiming to appreciate inclusion and diversity and disclosure of the existing myths.
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Information about the author
Anna Yunatska, Doctor of Philology, Associate Professor in Foreign Philology Department, Zaporizhzhya National
University, Ukraine
Address: 66 Zhukovskogo Str., 69600, Zaporizhzhya, Ukraine
E-mail: yunatskaya_a@ukr.net; Tel.: +38(061)289-12-27
ORCID: 0000-0003-4576-5368
