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ВЕСТН. МОСК. УН-ТА. СЕР. 13. ВОСТОКОВЕДЕНИЕ. 2017. № 3
ФИЛОЛОГИЯ Guzel V. Strelkova
"RAMAYANA" AND MODERN HINDI LITERATURE
Lomonosov Moscow State University
1 Leninskie Gory, Moscow, 11999
The subject of the paper is existence, development and influence of an ancient plot of the Ramayana and its main heroes - Rama and Sita - on Modern Hindi Literature. The scientific relevance of this very important and topical for modern India subject is confirmed by many publications dedicated to this theme. The ancient plot is modernized and connected with present situation in India and the world. The images of Rama and Sita allow creating new genre forms also: modern Mahakavya not in Sanskrit, but Hindi; a satirical story; a detective story, feminist novel, a novel-Utopia or a post-modern novel with some features of comics. The main stress in the paper is given to comparison of two Hindi writings: "Ram Charcha" (Discussing Rama) by Premchand - as an example of "a Ramayana in simple prose" addressed to children and not too "sophisticated", but rather mass audience, and "Ek aur Panchavati" (One more Panchvati) by Kusum Ansal - as an example of a novel created within the so called "mahila lekhan" (women's writing) literary movement.
Key words: Ramayana; modern Hindi novel; interpretation of a traditional plot.
The subject of the paper is the existence, development and influence of the ancient plot of the Ramayana and its main heroes - Rama and Sita -on Modern Hindi Literature. The scientific relevance of this subject, very important and topical for modern India, is confirmed by recent publications concerning this theme, such as "The Goddess as Role Model: Sita and Radha in Scripture and on Screen" by Heidi Rika Maria Pauwels1, "The Infinite Story. The Past and Present of the Ramayanas in Hindi" by Prof. of Warsaw University Danuta Stasik2, and Ph.D. thesis of Anna Chelnokova (St.Petersburg University, Oriental Faculty) "Ramayana in Modern India. On the basis of Hindi Literature". For me, the importance of
Guzel V. Strelkova - Associated Prof. of Indian Philology department of Institute of Asian and African Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University (e-mail: strelkova. [email protected]).
1 Pauwels H.R.M. The Goddess as Role Model: Sita and Radha in Scripture and on Screen. N.Y., 2008. 558 p.
2 Stasik D. The Infinite Story. The Past and Present of the Ramayanas in Hindi. Mano-har. Delhi, 2009. 319 p.
the subject is in its connection with my series of lectures on contemporary Indian literature, offered to students of Indian Philology department of IAAS MSU. The subject of the Ramayana became even more important for me after having read a Jain text - 'Paumachariya' by Vimalasuri (the end of the 3 c. AD) within the framework of the Summer Prakrit School in Wurzburg in 20093. Reading this text I could perfectly experience the greatness and continuity of the Ramayana tradition.
The present paper is based mainly on the literary sources which have not attracted much attention of the scholars mentioned above, most probably, because there are too many writings based on the Ramayana. Nevertheless, I suppose that some of them are worth studying, so the present work is an attempt to fill this gap.
Till now one of the most popular and worshiped interpretations of the plot about Rama in Hindi (Awadhi) is "Raamacharitamaanas" (16th c. AD) by Tulsidas4. In the modern Hindu tradition this work of later Bhakti is considered to be "the fifth Veda" and "Shruti" (a text of "Divine" origin) and in some Hindu communities the book itself is worshiped as an "Isht Dev" - a personal, chosen Deity. (The devotion and dedication to Isht Dev helps to fulfill personal wishes.) At the same time "Raamacharitamaa-nas" is considered to be one of the most prominent examples of Bhakti poetry, an equal in value to Valmiki's RaamaayaNa known as the first Mahaakaavya. As New Times came, since the second part of the 19th c., a new type of "Enlightened" literature, different from the traditional one, emerged, and many poems, dramas, novels and stories about Rama, Lakshmana and Sita were also written. In the new literature Rama was often presented as a righteous ruler, creator of Raamraajya - an ideal state, based on the laws of reason and justice.
Since ancient times, Rama was connected with Krishna (as the two most popular Human avatars of Vishnu). During the era of struggle for Independence both of these - Krishna and Rama - acquired a new aspect of popularity, not as Deities but as state leaders, some kind of an essence of a "national idea". Along with this, a great variety of interpretations of the Raamaayana exist in Modern Indian Literature. Starting with "Death of Meghnad" - a poem by M.M. Dotto in Bengali (1861), whose protagonists are not Rama, Sita and Lakshmana, but Ravana and his son Meghnad (Indrajit) - many Hindi novels and stories were based on the Raamaayana, interpreting it in their own way. Some novels that attracted
3 It was organized by Dr. Eva De Clercq, Dr. Anna Aurelia Esposito and Dr. Petteri Koskikallio. I am very grateful to them for the knowledge I have got participating in the SPS 2009.
4 Translated into Russian by academician A.P. Barannikov.
not only idle readers, but also serious scholars, were written up to the end of the XX - beginning of the XXI c. Among them are, for example, "Apne-apne Ram" (To each his own Ram) by Bhagvan Singh and "Abhyuday" (The Rise) by Narendra Kohli or, from my point of view, more appealing to a mass, "popular" reader, some stories by Vinod Bhatt or novels by Kusum Ansal and many others.
As in writings of the first half of the XX c. ("Saket" by M.Sh. Gupta, "Urmila" by Navin, Nirala's "Raama Shaktipuja" - Worship of Shakti by Rama), the narration about Rama in contemporary literary works is reconsidered, re-shaped and demythologized in order to meet ideological claims and intentions of the author. As a rule, not only literary or aesthetic features are important, but mainly ideological, socio-political, civil or religious/ethical ones. The ancient plot is modernized and connected with the present situation in India and the world. Still, the images of Rama and Sita allow to create new genre forms (for example, modern Mahakavya not in Sanskrit, but in Hindi; a satirical story; a detective story, a feminist novel, a novel-Utopia, or a post-modern novel with some features of a comics and so on).
Two Hindi novels are discussed and compared in the present article. The first one is "Raam Charchaa" (Discussing Rama) by Premchand (Premchand 19385). The writer is considered to be a classic of Modern Hindi prose, "Upanyaas kaa SamraaT- the Emperor of the Novel". His "Raam Charchaa" is an example of a Raamaayana in "simple prose" addressed to children or not too "sophisticated", but rather mass audience. The other one is "Ek aur Panchavati" (One more/Another Panchavati) by Kusum Ansal - as one of the novels created within the so called "mahilaa lekhari' ("women's writing") literary movement. This novel also could be considered as the one addressed to not an elitist reader, but as a kind of an example of "mass literature" appealing to a common reader, brought up within the Hindu tradition, but to some extent a reader modern and educated, and - as could be guessed - mainly to female readers.
One of the main reasons for choosing these two books is that they have not attracted much attention of the scholars, who deal with modern interpretation of the Raamayaana, though Danuta Stasik included "Raamkathaa", with a subtitle "Raamcharchaa" added in brackets6, into her survey of prosaic interpretations of the Raamayaana in the first half
5 This year of publishing - two years after Premchand passed away - is given by Ramlakhan Pandey. Tulsidasottar hindi raamsahitya. Allahabad, 2003 (1st published 1972, p. 161).
6 D. Stasik gave a reference to the edition published in Jaypur. Saahityaagaar, 1992, which has only 131 pages.
of the twentieth century7. The other reason is that the target audience of these two chosen books is mainly children and women - but not a general, or a traditional and a devoted reader. The third reason for choosing "Raamkathaa" and "Ek aur Panchavati" as an object of discussion is the Panchavati ("The grove of five vata- banyans"). This locus is very important for the unfolding of the plot of the Ramayana, and is a symbolic one. This grove in the Dandaka forest of the epic Ramayana plays an important role in the literary creations by Premchand and Kusum Ansal.
In contrast to the Ramayanas by Valmiki or Tulsidas, Premchand's "Raamcharchaa"8 is composed in a very simple, colloquial, contemporary and practically oral Hindi (khaRii bolii). It is stressed in the title itself -"Raam Charchaa" (discussing Rama), and it becomes clear from the very beginning, when the author addresses to the children: "Dear children! You must have seen a fair of Vijay-dashami. Sometimes it is called Raamliilaa also... Now we are telling you some interesting circumstances of that Raja Ramachandra."9 As D. Stasik pointed out, "it is not a novel but a kind of a story, performed by a story-teller who addresses his audience - children, teenagers and their elders. Premchand reconstructed it in a traditional form of story-telling, communicating with his audience directly in a lively, effortless style, using at times very colloquial language."10 The scholar indicated also that "This 'oral form' of Premchand's Raamkathaa is the most interesting feature, while its story is traditional and not innovative, which most probably was not even intended by its author."11 The writer followed Valmiki, but did it in a rather "easy-going" way, because, apparently, his intentions were to "entertain and educate" his young audience.
It is important that, starting from the introduction, Premchand uses 'Hindustani', easily combining Hindi and Urdu words, for example: "In the memory of that national victory a fair of Vijay-dashami is organized, and every year a figure of RaavaN is burned down."12 In this case Prem-
7 StasikD. Op. cit. P. 191-192.
8 I use the 8th edition of this book, published in 1969 by Hans prakashan, Ilaahabaad. 172 p. There is no "Raamkathaa" - only "Raamcharchaa" without any brackets. I assume, that since then the book was issued many times and it shows the popularity of the book. The book was translated into Russian also. Premchand M. Skazanie o Rame (Tale of Ram). M., 1958.
9 "Pyaare bacche! Tumne vijay-dashami kaa melaa to dekhaa hii hogaa. Kahiin-kahiin ise raamliilaa kaa melaa bhii kahte hain <.> Aaj ham tumhen unhiin raajaa raamchandr kii zindagii ke dilchasp haalaat sunatee hain."
10 StasikD. Op. cit. P. 192.
11 Ibidem.
12 Usii kii kaumii fatah kii yaadgaar men vijay-dashamii kaa melaa hotaa hai aur har saal raavaN kaa putlaa jalaayaa jaataa hai. Premchand M. Raamcharchaa. Allahabad, 1969. P. 3.
chand was going far away from "aadesh" - a precept of Mahavir Prasad Dvivedi13 to follow the stylistic purity and to use manly words of Sanskrit origin in the literary Hindi. In the text of 172 pages, covering all 7 books of Ramayana (from Baal- kaanD to Uttar-kaanD) the author successfully presented a plot of the Ramayana. At the same time he taught his young readers how to follow moral norms and fulfill their duty. The main word of the last chapter "Ant" (Final) is "kartavya" - duty. Realizing that he appealed to small children, Premchand assured them that this way - the way of duty - lead them to "prasannata" (happiness, joy) which would be their "puraskar" (a prize, benefit)14.
As it was mentioned above, Premchand followed the plot of the Ramayana by Valmiki in general, and made the story sound as a very interesting, eventful life-story of real people who also possessed some extraordinary powers. Let us shortly focus on one chapter only -"Panchavati", because this short chapter from "Van-kaanD" (Forest Book) corresponds to the other book - "One more Panchavati" - which will be discussed in the article later. Panchavati is a grove in the Dandaka forest on the banks of Narmada river, where Rama, Sita and Lakshmana were living happily during their exile, and from where Sita had been abducted by Ravan. Premchand dedicates a whole paragraph to the description of beauties of the place, which was even more beautiful than the praises spread and heard: "... mountains are covered by flowers, swans and herons swim in the river's pure water. Flocks of deer used to come to drink water.. ,"15 But there was a settlement of Rakshasas (demons) not far from Panchavati.
"Cherchez la femme!" - can be said to characterize the force of circumstances which had led to further events and Sita's abduction. An episode with Shurpanakha - Ravana's sister who fell in love with Rama and was punished by his younger brother Lakshmana - was described by Premchand splendidly. There are a lot of nuances showing how one and the same thing could be seen and understood differently by different participants. The writer stressed that a point of view is very important, and how it could change, depending on a changing situation and circumstances. In spite of the tragic outcome of the Shurpanakha episode and events it had triggered, Premchand wrote this chapter in a humorous tone. He showed a bold Shurpanakha who wanted to marry such a beautiful, god-looking Ramachandra, then Lakshmana. Their dialog is worth a
13 Mahavirprasad Dvivedi (1864-1938) - the editor of Sarasvati - one of the most important Hindi journals since 1903. He played a very important role in creating the standards of modern Hindi and Hindi literature.
14 PremchandM. Op. cit. P. 172.
15 Ibid. P. 64.
quotation: "Raamchnadra said: We live in Ayodhya. Our father is the Raja of Ayodhya. Nowadays our brother is a ruler. Shurpanakha said - Then, everything is settled. I am also a daughter of a Raja. My brother Raavan rules Lanka. That's all - we are a very good couple. I was looking for a husband like you, it's good that you came on my way, now marry me. You are lucky that such a beauty like me wants to marry you."16
The protagonists behave like real human beings, there is practically nothing resembling gods in them. The dialogue shows further how Rama and Lakshmana are teasing Shurpanakha, and the lesson Lakshmana taught her, cutting off her nose and ears. This is an awful deed, in reality, and it leads to a war between Ramachandra and Rakshasas. But the author does not discuss what in the ancient times has been considered as good deeds. Premchand shows the behavior of his heroes, and sometimes uncovers their hidden intentions and passions, as depicted in a dialogue between Ravana and crying Shurpanakha in the next chapter "Hiran kaa shikaar" - ("A hunt for a deer"). Shurpanakha blames Rama and Lak-shmana for forcing her into the marriage, and stresses that she has never considered them seriously. As a result "chhoTe bhaaii ne ye sharaarat kii" (the younger brother played this joke), and the revenge for this "joke" (as sarcastically says the antagonist heroine, meaning that her own nose and ears were cut off), might be only the death of the two brothers, and disgrace of Sita. Shurpanakha insists on her brother marrying Sita, by describing the beauty of the latter, whom Ravana should marry himself, because Rama is not worthy of her.17 Such is a strange "logic" of a woman in the interpretation of Premchnad, but it corresponds to the plot of the Raamaayana.
Another important point is that Ravana remembers Sita, and he is more preoccupied with memories of the lost svayamvara, during which Ravana also had tried to win Sita as a bride, than with his revenge on Lakshmana and Rama who had killed Ravana's brothers and humiliated his sister. Still, he demands Rakshasa Maricha to "demonstrate his art", by asking why Maricha should just sit and uselessly "receive salary". In such an anachronistic way Premchand continues dialogues of his ancient
16 Raamchndr ne kahaa - ham log Ayodhyaa ke rahnevaale hain. Hamaare pitaajii Ayodyaa ke raajaa hain. Aajkal hamaare bhaaii raajya karte hain. Shurpanakha - bas, tab to saarii baat ban gayii. Main bhii raajaa kii laRkii hoon. Meraa bhaaii RaavaN Lankaa men raajya kartaa hai. Bas hamaaraa-tumhaara achchhaa hii joRaa hai. Main tumhaare hii jaise pati DhooDh rahii thii, tum acche mile, ab mujse vivaah kar lo. Tumhaaraa saubhaagya hai ki mujh-jaisii sundarii tumse vivaah karnaa chaahtii hai. Premchand M. Op. cit. P. 64-65.
17 Ibid. P. 70.
antiheroes, and explains who was the demon Maricha, and what were his relations with Rama18.
Quite unlike the ironical way Premchand used to describe Ravana and his circle, the writer usually shows Rama and Lakshmana very seriously. They are the heroes who have to follow their kshatriya dharma. Nevertheless, when read by a feminist scholar, this story could contribute a lot for the condemnation of a patriarchal society. It is mostly women characters whose contribution into or interference with different events lead to dramatic and even tragic happenings and results. Such happenings start with Kaykeyi who insisted on Rama's exile and continue up to Sita who broke a command of Rama to remain with Lakshmana, and after that, left alone, came out of a magic circle, drawn by Lakshmana, before running to help and save his brother Rama. Still, a reader realizes, thus is how the plot moves ahead and the story could be created and recited.
"Raamcharchaa" by Premchand confirms that this classic of Modern Hindi literature followed his idea of "adarshwaadii yatharthawaad" -Idealistic realism. By reconstructing the epic story, the writer did not criticize or rethink the ideals and dogmas of Hinduism. He stressed the importance of moral values for the young generation in modern times. Premchand showed different kinds of relations in a family and society, and stressed the importance of faith in goodness. He explained that it was necessary to fulfill one's duty, and how to be able to choose between the right and wrong. This is most clearly shown in the case of Lakshmana, who had either to follow orders of his elder brother or decide himself what was more preferable. Readers could clearly understand this by reading an episode with Sitaharan - when Rama's spouse was abducted by Ravana. As the story showed, Lakshmana should have followed the command of his brother, and in spite of everything, should have never left Sita alone.
This situation is shown as in a mirror in the finale, sometime later after the victory over Ravana and the triumphant return of Rama to Ayodhya. Lakshmana, following the order of his elder brother, had to take Sita to the forest, because the people of Ayodhya had doubted in Sita's fidelity during her imprisonment at Lanka. That is why she had to be left alone in the forest, in another exile. And Lakshmana did so, in spite of all his sufferings and doubts. Premchand describes that nothing wrong happened to Sita in the forest, because Valmiki took care of Sita and her sons Kusha and Lava at that time. But soon after that episode Lakshmana failed to follow an instruction of Rama. He let Rishi Durvasa meet Rama when the latter was busy in conversation with a Sadhu. Such neglect of the order led
18 Ibid. P. 70-71.
Lakshmana to death. Rama explained to his brother Lakshmana, that he, Rama, was, first of all, the Raja, and only after that, a son, or a brother, a husband - so the order, duty prevailed. Lakshmana had to leave Ayodhya and soon died at the banks of Sarayu.
The author, by concluding the story, stressed that "this is a short story of Ramachandra's life. The only sense of his life is in one word, and the word is kartavya - duty. He always believed that duty stood above all else. He never strayed from kartavya on his way of life <...>. This devotion to his duty took Rama high from the community of people and seated him in the hall of Gods. The holy result (prasaad) of his devotion to duty (kartavya-paraayantaa) is that the whole India (Bhaarat). believes that he is an avatara of God Almighty."19 Taking into consideration the writer's own life, we can say that he also followed this way of "kartavya". Prem-chand's stories and novels, articles and even "Hans" - a literary magazine he founded - proved that the duty of a writer had been the most important idea for Premchand to the last days of his life. No wonder that all India worships his name. Maybe, this adaptation of the Ramayana for children did not contribute to the writer's popularity so much, in comparison with his stories and novels. But Premchand's talent and his ideals were expressed here clearly. Premchand stresses the duty, kartavya as the main virtue. Still, the text of "Raamcharchaa" confirms that he did not think deeply over the reason for which the duty, fulfilled by Rama, forced him to abandon Sita, his unborn children, and later Lakshmana. We can suppose that the main reason was a patriarchal, traditional, communal society, in which the fate of an individual was not so important or even considered more valuable than interests of all. Nowadays we can ask a question - why their lives were not as valuable as this unexplained "kartavya"?
The answer, or, at least an attempt to find it, was given much later, in 1962, in a poem by a renowned Hindi poet Naresh Mehta. His poem was called "SamShay kii ek raat" (A night of Doubt). It shows Rama deep in thought over the future - his own and other people's, just before his entry into Lanka. Rama realizes his responsibilities towards others, and he cannot avoid the struggle. As D. Stasik rightly remarks, such people as Rama are "fully conscious that their decisions have far-reaching implications for the life of other people but <...> they are not even able to foresee the direct or indirect consequences of these decisions."20 And after a mental struggle, finally, Rama came to the conclusion, and his words were: "Now, I am the decision/ of all/ not mine own. <.> Don't ask me,/oh, my reason
19 Ibid. P. 172.
20 StasikD. Op. cit. P. 198.
(mere vivek)!/Don't ask me... Neither the heaven (aakaSh),/ nor its gods/ and the gods of gods,/no one, yes, no one/ knows answers to questions (praShnon ke uttar nahiin)."21 The same kartavya is stressed in Maithili Sharan Gupta's poem "Panchavati" (1925), in which mainly Laksmana and his devotion to Rama-Sita are described. Starting with the very beginning of the poem a reader finds the word "kartavya": Rama asked his brother Lakshmana who followed him in exile: "Why, exactly this is the duty, Brother?/ Lakshman bent his head,/Aarya, this person towards you/ when fulfilled his duty?/ You loved only!/ saying that Sita smiled,/ but bright eyes of Rama became full as mature mother-pearls."22 In this poem duty and love coexist and prevail in Panchavati, where at least for a short time the three heroes of the Raamaayana became happy.
The poem "Panchavati" by M. Sh. Gupta contains many dialogues, and it acts as a link between an oral transmission of the epic plot and a performance. It corresponds to the fact that in the first half of the XX c. the majority of works based on Ramayana or related to the story of Rama were written in verse, but not too many of them had become real poems. There were dramas and practically no novels. One of the reasons explaining this fact could be "the tradition of oral transmission and performance so strong in the Raamaayana tradition."23 The fact that authors were interested not only in Rama or Sita, but also in other characters (Bhaarat, Lakshman, Urmila or Kaikeii) was also worth noting. Another important moment was that even if writers of the first half of the XX c. considered Rama as God, they did not emphasize his divine status. And we saw it clearly in Premchand's rendering of Rama kathaa. "They were interested in his human potentials and the reformist capacities dormant in the story of his deeds", - stressed D. Stasik24.
The situation with novels based on the Raamaayana's plot written in the second half of the XX c. may be called more complicated. Two main most appraised novels - "Apne apne Ram" (To each his own Ram) by Bhagvan Singh and "Ramkathaa" cycle "Abhyuday" (The Rise) by Nar-endra Kohly- were thoroughly discussed in the above-mentioned works of Danuta Stasik and Anna Chelnokova. These contemporary Hindi Raamkathaas "revealed their multilayered approach to myth"25, and three
21 Mehta N. Sanshay ki ek raat. 1962. P. 88-89.
22 kyaa kartavya yahii hai bhaaii?/ Laksman ne sir jhukaa liyaa,/: aarya, aapke prati is jaan ne /. kab kab kyaa kartavya kiyaa?/ pyaar kiyaa hai tum ne keval!/ siitaa ye kah muskaaii,/ kintu raam kii ujjval aankhen/ saphal siip-sii bhar aaiin. Gupta M.Sh. Panchavati. Delhi, 1925. P. 4.
23 StasikD. Op. cit. P. 193.
24 Ibid. P. 194.
25 Ibid. P. 222.
main elements of their poetics are: "the preservation of the constituent elements of the original myth; interpretation of the original myth, and "the introduction of an author's original 'mythological' plot, i.e. individual mythologizing <.. .>."26 But, naturally, there are some novels which do not fit into this definition. One of them is "Ek aur Panchavati" (One more / Another Panchvati) by Kusum Ansal27. The novel was mainly inspired by the traditional characters, and the author used some motifs and characters of the Ramayana, without dealing with the epical plot and story and not attempting to create any kind of myth. Kusum Ansal calls herself "a modest writer", but even internet shows that she looks like a rather popular novelist and poetess, who has published a number of books in prose and poetry. Her novel "Uskii Panchavati" (Her Panchavati) was first published in 1977, second edition of 1985 was titled "Ek aur Panchavati" and translated into Panjabi, English and even Russian in the 1990ths. The film version of the novel directed by Basu Bhattachariya in 1986, maybe, contributed a lot to the popularity of the novel. Contrary to Premchand's "Raamcharchaa" or Maithili Sharan Gupta's "Panchavati", the novel by K. Ansal does not follow the plot of Ramayana at all. "Panchavati" is taken just as a symbol, and it is used rather freely. Here "The grove of five vata- banyans" is a mango grove, and it is not located in Dandaka vana, or even near Nashik, but in a town Basty. In a film version the plot is settled in Nepal, and the God Pashupatinath is maybe more important than Ramachandra - an epic hero or an avatara of Vishnu.
Symbolism of flowers and trees is rather loosely connected with the title, but, surprisingly, is not much worked out. Usually "phuul" - flowers in general are mentioned (even if a basket of flowers is presented) or opposed to cactuses28 . But there are flowers of mango tree, discussed in the preface to the novel29. We find them in the chapter, describing the "Panchavati" grove as a place where the heroine, Saadhavii, has been very happy, and has found her love. She collects mango flowers and enjoys their fragrance30. The novel is written in the traditions of a "social family novel". It is concentrated on the main heroine and her relations with her relatives. The name of the heroine - Saadhavii - means "Chaste, faithful wife" and could resemble Sita, but she sometimes behaves against the traditional social norms. Her feelings are most important for her, and love and self-realization are her goals. The heroine can do anything to reach love and
26 Ibidem.
27 Kusum A. Ek aur Panchavatii. N. Delhi, 1985. 176 p.
28 Ibid. P. 10, 24.
29 Ibid. P. 7.
30 Ibid. P. 52.
her beloved one. At the same time she is "clever" and can use her mind, the faculty of reason, behaving according to the situation.
The plot of this rather sentimental novel is based on a "love triangle". Saadhavii, a very talented college student, a participant and a winner of many competitions, is married to a wealthy businessman Yatin. This marriage was arranged by Yatin's elder brother Vikram - after he, as a jury, had seen Saadhavii at a swimming competition, and was charmed by her. She falls in love with him also. But Vikram is married, so he urgently arranges a marriage of Saadhavii with his younger brother. The heroine unsuccessfully tries to become a devoted wife - "pativrataa", as her name suggests, but fails. She looks for a way out and starts painting, but nobody understands her. So after 4 years of marriage Saadhavii leaves her husband to return from Delhi to her parents in Gorakhpur. It is important to mention, that within 4 years of marriage Saadhavii did not manage to become a mother.
Vikram, as the elder and responsible member of the family, accompanies Saadhavii to her parents. On the way they spend some time in a town Basty31, where Vikram had a business meeting. "Panchavati" - is the name of a mango grove in an estate of Vikram, which is located there. Here Saadhavii finds her real happiness with Vikram, but it could not last more than a few days. After returning to Gorakhpur Saadhavii works as a teacher, continues her paintings and expects a child. A few months later a very successful exhibition of her paintings was arranged in Delhi. Saadhavii's husband Yatin came there also. He knows about her condition and is ready to accept her back. But Saadhavii explained to him that the father of her future child was Vikram, so she planned to return to her parents after the exhibition was over.
Meanwhile Vikram was going to present his factory and "Panchavati" grove to Saadhavii, but perished in a flight accident. Saadhavii was shocked with the news, and gave an early birth to twins. After being unconscious for two weeks, Saadhavii survived. Yatin wants her and the newly born children to stay with him. But she prefers to come back to 'Panchavati' with her babies and cherish the memory of Vikram there, but not to stay with her husband. The novel ends with Saadhavi's words addressed to her mother-in-law: "I will call them Kusha and Lawa"32. Most probably, the plot is the main reason, why the novel seems rather popular: it was
31 Basti is connected by tradition with Vasishtha rishi who was a kulguru of Rama and Lakshmana.
32 Kusum A. Op. cit. P. 119.
published several times33, translated into foreign languages, screened and there were plans to create a remake of the film also.
The novel is written in a 1st-person narrative, and the main, key principle of the heroine is "apnaapan" - closeness, or, in the context of the novel, self-respect. Saadhavii's aim, as a reader can see after reading the book, is self-expression and self-realization. She does it by means of painting. According to the plot and the self-characteristic, the heroine is a well-educated and beautiful young girl. She is fond of painting and paints much, her paintings are about 400 in number. Saadhavii is a sports-girl also, and is very popular among her friends and so on. She can do everything - from sewing to riding a bicycle and does everything enthusiastically. This 1st person form of narration leaves a reader with a feeling that the heroine is not modest, but rather self-praising. She is fond of European music, books, modern drama etc, but tries to be faithful to Indian traditions also. The novel starts with a description of Sadhavi's chitra-shaalaa (gallery) and different kinds of styles she paints in. One of the favorite is madhubani - a folk style of painting Sadhavi's aunty taught her34.
The author tries to create a lonely and very 'special', extraordinary, sophisticated and a modern, educated heroine. And Saadhavii after her rather unexpected marriage could not be easily understood by her new, quite ordinary relatives. On the one hand, there are all features of a really modern heroine who can, thanks to her talents, education and character, create her own life in a way she wants and deserves. Such heroines are found in classical Hindi novels by Jainendra Kumar (Sunita, Kalyani, Sukhda) or Yashpal (Tara in "Juthaa Sach"), and contemporary novels of Hindi women writers also. It is no wonder, because the author made her Doctorate in Hindi Literature35. A reader can find some allusions to classical Bengali novel also, like an episode with the heroine, travelling on a train with Vikram whom she loves. It corresponds to "The home perished" by Sharatchandra Chottopadhyaay. There are some features of Saadhavii which have much in common with Kumudini, the heroine of "Relations" (Jogajog) by R.Tagore 36. It confirms that the novel and the heroine could be considered to be within the Indian literary tradition. But
33 First published as "Panchavati" in 1977, Star Publications Ltd., then as "Ek aur Panchavati" in 1985. The latest publication was by Penguin India in 2007.
34 Ibid. P. 10-11.
35 From Panjab University, Chandigarh, 1987.
36 There are many common features in characters of Tagore's Kumu from "Jogajog" and Saadhavii, even some episodes, like a shabby, half- forgotten by others room converted by heroines into their own space (In Russian translation [Tagor, 1965: 79] ) or meditations about factory chimneys contrasting to the beautiful sky, etc).
on the other hand, there are too many elements of a melodrama in the novel by Kusum Ansal: unfulfilled love, a lonely heroine whom nobody understands, unexpected happiness, a sudden death of a beloved, and a birth of illegal children; a heroine at the edge of death, and a kind of a happy end - because she survived and had twins.
Some elements of the Raamaayana were introduced to make this sentimental, sometimes far from the reality, and very "romantic" love story more attractive. It starts with the title of the novel and the last sentences ("I call them Lava-Kusha")37. The Ramayana can serve well to the purpose of creating a contemporary heroine, living in a traditional world of Indian family. An implicit or sometimes even straight comparison with Sita38 put an emphasis on how valuable the heroine is. But these symbols, borrowed from the Ramayana, do not sound organic, are not harmonized with the characters of the novel. They are too "artificial", as if "cut out" from the classical plot, and they often contradict to other metaphors used by the author. For example, one of the main features of Vikram is a foreign (videsh) perfume, the fragrance of which attracts Saadhavii. She often uses Anglicisms. Sometime it gives practically a comic effect, in contrast to the intentions of the writer. For example, the heroine compares prem - love with elastic, spread from one room to another or stresses the "hypnotic" personality of Vikram39. Male characters are too far away from Rama and Lakshmana. Vikram, the main protagonist, is described as a kind of a special, outstanding person also - just like Saadhavii. But he made his fortune thanks to an arranged marriage to a rich girl, who "without his wanting this, soon made him a father of three children", and he himself, instead of his dream to become a pilot or a radio announcer - to fly and influence everybody from the heaven, became a businessman, an owner of a factory and a person "like a machine"40. Only his love to Saadhavii makes Vikram alive again - just for a short time. Their relations and conversations are presented in a melodramatic and sentimental way, with many exaggerations of mental and physical suffering of the heroine, for which Vikram blames himself mostly.
But the final of the novel returns a reader to the main idea: an educated and talented woman can find her happiness and destiny, and follow the path which leads her to self realization, so she could compare herself with the heroine of the great Epic. In spite of some shortcomings, the
37 Kusum A. Op. cit. P. 119.
38 The heroine herself "is laughing at a comparison of the place with Panchavati and herself with Sita" [Kusum, 1985: 51].
39 Kusum A. Op. cit. P. 54-57.
40 Ibid. P. 47.
novel, as it was mentioned above, continues to be popular, and is read by many; one of the main reasons of this fact could be the allusions to the classical plot of the Ramayana. Of course, this novel is quite of another kind in comparison to Premchand's "Raamacharchaa", but both books appeal to a mass reader who knows the Raamaayana well and is ready to listen to new interpretations of this eternal story. It is important that such interpretations appeal not to religious, but to moral or aesthetic and sentimental values.
Interpretations, as we see, can greatly vary in form - poetical or prosaic, and their genre -from a poem, a story, a novel to a cycle of novels or a short version of the epic plot, presented in a lively, practically oral form with many anachronisms, as it was written by Premchand. The stories about Rama and Sita continue to be a source of inspiration for many modern Hindi writers. They appeal to millions of Indians, and "Rama-Sita story" continues to play a great role in India, let it be religion, literature and culture, or socio-political life. In any sphere the ancient plot could sound very actual and modern, depending on its interpretation. As it was said in Rigveda (9, 23, 2): "anu pratnas ayava: padam naviyo akramu:" - "Ancient Ayu followed the new way".
REFERENCES
1. Chelnokova A.V. Ramajana v sovremennoj Indii. Na primere literatury hindi (Ramayana in Modern India. On the example of Hindi Literature): Diss. ... k.f.n. (Ph.D. diss.). Sankt-Peterburg, 2009. 175 p.
2. Gupta M.Sh. Panchavati. Chirganv (Jhansi). Sahitya-Sadan, First ed. 1925. 1944 - 32d edition. 56 p.
3. Heidi R.M.P. The Goddess as Role Model: Sita andRadha in Scripture and on Screen. N.Y.,
2008, 558 p.
4. Kohli N. Abhyuday. Vol. 1, Delhi, 1992; vol. 2, Delhi, 1994. 700 p.
5. Kusum A. Ek aur Panchavatii. N. Delhi, 1985. 176 p.
6. Mehta N. SamShay kii ek raat, Illahabad, Lokbhaaratiiprakaashan, 1962, 85 p.
7. Pandey R. Tulsidasottar hindi raamsahitya. Allahabad, 2003 (1st ed.1972), 284 p.
8. Premchand M. Raamcharchaa. Allahabad, 1969 (8th ed.), 172 p.
9. Premchand M. Skazanie o Rame (Tale of Ram). Moscow, 1958, 158 p.
10. Tagor R. V tenetah zhizni (In the network of life). Moscow, 1965, t. 9, 231 c.
11. Singh B. Apne-apne Ram. Delhi, 1992, 376 p.
12. Stasik D. The Infinite Story. The Past and Present of the Ramayanas in Hindi. Manohar. Delhi,
2009, 319 p.
13. Tul'sidas. Ramajana iliRamacharitamanasa (Ramayana or Ramacharitamanasa). Per. s hindi (translation from Hindi) by A.P. Barannikov. M., 1948, 969 p.
Г.В. Стрелкова
«РАМАЯНА» И СОВРЕМЕННАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА ХИНДИ
Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «Московский государственный университет имени М.В. Ломоносова» 119991, Москва, Ленинские горы, 1
Предмет исследования данной статьи - существование, развитие и влияние древнего сюжета эпической «Рамаяны» и ее главных героев - Рамы и Ситы - на современную литературу хинди. Научную значимость этого очень важного и знакового для современной Индии предмета подтверждают многочисленные публикации, посвященные этой теме. Древний сюжет модернизируется и связывается с ситуацией в Индии и мире. Образы Рамы и Ситы позволяют создать также и новые жанровые формы: современную махакавью не на санскрите, а на хинди; сатирический рассказ, детективную историю, феминистский роман, роман - утопию или постмодернистский роман с элементами комикса. Основное внимание в статье уделяется сравнению двух произведений: это «Рам чарча» (Рассуждения о Раме) Премчанда - как пример «Рамаяны», написанной простой, понятной прозой и адресованной детям и не столь искушенной, преимущественно массовой аудитории, а также «Эк аур Панчавати» (Еще одна Панчавати) Кусум Ансаль - как пример романа, созданного в русле литературного направления «махила лекхан» (женское письмо).
Ключевые слова: Рамаяна; современный роман хинди; интерпретация традиционного сюжета.
Сведения об авторе: Стрелкова Гюзэль Владимировна - доцент кафедры индийской филологии ИСАА МГУ имени М.В. Ломоносова (e-mail: strelkova. [email protected]).
СПИСОК ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ
1. Chelnokova A. V. Ramajana v sovremennoj Indii. Na primere literatury hindi (Ramayana in Modern India. On the example of Hindi Literatubire): Diss. ... k.f.n. (Ph.D. diss.). Sankt-Peterburg, 2009. 175 p.
2. Gupta M.Sh. Panchavati. Chirganv (Jhansi). Sahitya-Sadan, First ed. 1925. 1944 - 32d edition. 56 p.
3. Heidi R.M.P. The Goddess as Role Model: Sita and Radha in Scripture and on Screen. N.Y.,
2008. 558 p.
4. Kohli N. Abhyuday. Vol. 1. Delhi, 1992; vol. 2. Delhi, 1994. 700 p.
5. Kusum A. Ek aur Panchavatii. N. Delhi, 1985. 176 p.
6. MehtaN. SamShay kii ek raat, Illahabad, Lokbhaaratii prakaashan, 1962. 85 p.
7. Pandey R. Tulsidasottar hindi raamsahitya. Allahabad, 2003 (1st ed.1972). 284 p.
8. Premchand M. Raamcharchaa. Allahabad, 1969 (8th ed.). 172 p.
9. PremchandM. Skazanie o Rame (Tale of Ram). Moscow, 1958. 158 p.
10. Tagor R. V tenetah zhizni (In the network of life). Moscow, 1965. T. 9. 231 c.
11. Singh B. Apne-apne Ram. Delhi, 1992. 376 p.
12. Stasik D. The Infinite Story. The Past and Present of the Ramayanas in Hindi. Manohar. Delhi,
2009. 319 p.
13. Tul'sidas. Ramajana ili Ramacharitamanasa (Ramayana or Ramacharitamanasa) / Per. s hindi (translation from Hindi) by A.P. Barannikov. M., 1948. 969 p.
