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14PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF EXPRESSION OF ETHNIC TOLERANCE AND FEATURES OF PERCEPTION OF OTHER ETHNIC GROUPS BY UKRAINIAN YOUTH
Predko V.
Ph.D. Student,
Ukraine, Kyiv, Faculty of Psychology, Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv,
Abstract
The article discusses the psychological characteristics of interethnic perception, reveals its aspects. The basic provisions regarding the definition of the concept of "ethnic tolerance" and "ethnic stereotype" are revealed, their psychological essence is characterized and main structural components are given. The features of their influence on interethnic interaction are shown.
The article presents results of an empirical study to determine the perception and attitude of Ukrainian youth towards other ethnicities through the prism of determining the level of ethnic tolerance and the expression of heterostereotypes in relation to representatives of other ethnic groups. Research of ethnic stereotype, ethnic tolerance, and their interrelationships are important, relevant and promising. Since they are the basis of collective awareness of a sense of community, which manifests itself in the desire to live together and promote harmonious development. The study of the links between these aspects has not only theoretical but also practical value since they influence the processes and results of social transformation.
Keywords: ethnos, interethnic interaction, ethnic stereotype, ethnic tolerance.
Introduction. The problem of intercultural contacts encourages psychologists to study the psychological nature of interethnic interaction and ethnic tolerance. One of the important tasks is to study the peculiarities of interethnic perception in the process of communication, which occurs in the context of a multiethnic environment, in particular, the features of manifestations of ethnic tolerance and ethnic stereotypes. Of particular relevance is the study of the socio-psycho-logical components of interethnic relations in order to find ways to stabilize them in a multi-ethnic environment. Ukraine is a multi-ethnic country, home to numerous ethnic groups. Although it cannot be said that there are serious problems in communication between different ethnic groups in Ukraine, there are still difficulties in communicating with citizens who are representatives of other national and cultural communities.
Purpose of the study. The aim of this article is to determine the level of ethnic tolerance of Ukrainian students and to study the peculiarities of their perception of representatives of other ethnic groups.
The main part of the study. Today the world is changing rapidly. The basic values of traditional cultures are being transformed. The ideas of the established psychological categories are developing and expanding. Humanity is on the verge of forming a new picture of the world. Advances in science and technology are so dramatically changing our everyday reality, it seems problematic even to track all these metamorphoses in their entirety and interconnectivity. In this world of events and information flows, remains a problem field associated with the comprehension of such an extremely complex phenomenon as interethnic interactions. (Predko, 2018) The modern world consists of a large number of nationalities that interact with each other. The core of this interaction is tolerance, namely interethnic tolerance. Discrimination and social exclusion regarding ethnic origin cause a great deal of conflict between groups worldwide. Over the decades, psychologists have made great efforts to understand the stereotyping and prejudice processes underlying these phenomena (Côté, Andersen & Erickson, 2015).
Ethnic tolerance - a systematic set of psychological guidances, feelings, a certain set of knowledge, social and legal norms (expressed through law or tradition), as well as worldview and behavioral orientations, which imply tolerant or acceptable attitude of representatives of one nationality to other foreign phenomena (language, culture, customs, norms of behavior, etc.) or representatives of other ethnic groups. It promotes constructive interethnic interaction and provides mutual understanding, forms the ability to withstand the impact of a foreign ethnic culture. The causes of intolerance are subjective cognitive formations - stereotypes, attitudes, beliefs, social representations. An important component of interethnic communication is the perceptual side, which promotes the understanding of each other. The mechanisms of this perception depend on the patterns of communication and socio-psycholog-ical characteristics of the interaction of representatives of various ethnic groups, and in particular on the specifics of the manifestation of ethnic stereotypes in these processes.
Ethnic stereotypes can be defined as a simplified, schematized, emotionally colored and extremely stable image of an ethnic group that easily extends to all its representatives; a schematic behavior program that is typical to representatives of any ethnic group. Ethnic stereotypes tend to record evaluative thoughts about the moral, mental, and physical qualities of representatives of diverse ethnic communities (Danyliuk, 2002). The stereotype is an extremely simplified and generalized version that a social group shares with respect to other groups. It contains not only descriptive elements but also evaluative ones (Côté, Andersen & Erickson, 2015).
For decades stereotypes have been considered as the result of a distorting process, mistakes in perception with little or no connection to reality. Allport (1954) called them exaggerated, harsh, too simplistic, and wrong beliefs, equivalent to prejudice.
The structure of an ethnic stereotype is defined as the relationship between the cognitive, affective, and behavioral components.
The cognitive component determines the inner content of ethnic stereotypes, is based on the absoluti-zation and transference of traits inherent to individual representatives to the group as a whole, due to the limited interethnic interaction of perception and cognition of another ethnic group. Therefore, the informative component of ethnic stereotypes is not always accurate and complete, especially when information about another group is obtained without direct contact. Thus, Iu. V. Bromlei notes that ethnic consciousness "not only absolutizes some of the truly existing ethnic properties but is also tends to attribute non-existent traits to both "own" and "foreign" ethnic groups" (Bromlei, 1983).
The affective component of ethnic stereotypes is realized in the positive or negative attitude of the individual towards the object of cognition and thus gives the stereotype of an evaluative character. The study of this component contributes to the determination of typical emotional reactions to any ethnic objects. Therefore, even the initial superficial knowledge of an ethnic object contributes to the formation of a certain attitude - sympathy, dislike or indifference to representatives of another group (Soldatova, 1998). Hence, stereotypes not only reflect certain information but also express an emotional attitude towards the object of perception.
The behavioral component of the ethnic stereotype is manifested in the formation of certain behavior in relation to the assessed group. The ascertainment and assessment of the psychological characteristics of the "other" ethnic group contribute to the formation of certain behavior towards it. Often, due to insufficiently detailed information about the representatives of another ethnic group, a negative ethnic stereotype is formed, which is then realized in the corresponding negative behavior towards all its representatives (Soldatova, 1998).
The structure of ethnic stereotypes consists of: the core, consisting of a system of ideas about the appearance of representatives of a given ethnic group, its historical past, lifestyle characteristics, job skills; variable judgments about moral and communicative characteristics of this ethnic community, which are closely related to situations of interethnic and interstate relations (Savycjka & Spivak, 2011).
The essential features of ethnic stereotypes are:
• emotional-evaluative character - idea that is formed during inter-ethnic communication about one's own and others' peoples, expresses a certain emotional-value attitude;
• stability and rigidity to new information - the stability of stereotypes is relative since a change in the relations between groups or the arrival of new information can cause a change in their content or even orientation;
• coherence - a high level of unity in the representations of group members (Danyliuk, 2010).
Ethnic stereotypes are divided into autostereotypes and heterostereotypes. Autostereotypes are people's judgments about themselves and self-assessment, usually a set of positive evaluations. Heterostereotypes are a set of evaluative judgments about other peoples. Heterostereotypes can be either positive or negative, depending on the historical experience of the interaction with certain peoples. Heterostereotypes reflect the
experience of the interaction of peoples in those areas where these peoples actively communicated. Heterostereotypes arise due to limitations of interethnic communication. The traits inherent to a single known representative of another ethnic group apply to the entire group. The stereotypes that develop in such a way further affect the emergence of ethnic antipathies or ethnic sympathies.
Tajfel (1981) has shown that in the formation of social and especially ethnic stereotypes, the categorization process is rarely neutral. Firstly, representatives of various groups seek to defend and exaggerate their positive-value psychological certainty before other communities. Secondly, groups choose or overestimate (absolutize) characteristics that correspond to their predominantly positive social status, which looks much higher than the status of other communities.
Affects and emotions have a huge influence on the formation and change of stereotypes. Positive affect can reduce the tendency to stereotype or influence those processes that occur during its action. Stereotypes can change fully in response to dramatic or extremely vivid events.
The following factors can influence on stereotyping:
• conditions and features of human socialization (socio-political events, family conditions, professional activities etc);
• education and intellectual development (the more intellectual development and the level of education of a person, the less prone to bias)
• personal experience of interaction (direct interaction reduces the level of stereotypedness of judgments).
According to L. Pochebut (2017) people constantly encounter cases of psychological similarity and difference between representatives of their own and foreign cultures in intercultural communications.
A study (Killen, Lee-Kim, McGlothlin, & Stangor, 2002) conducted in the United States was focused on youth's views on ethnic isolation. Researchers have found that the vast majority of American students (ages 9 to 16) stated that it was wrong for a school institution to ban children on the basis of group membership (ethnicity) while supporting moral reasoning (equal rights, justice). One-third and half of the students accepted alienation in the context of friendship and in the context of peers. They gave personal justifications (you decide who you want to be friends with) or for social reasons (the group won't be okay with someone other).
Another study (Enesco, Navarro, Paradela & Fernandez, 2002) has been conducted comparing the attitudes of American and Hispanic students (ages 9-16) to the ethnic isolation of a child from a black or gipsy ethnic group. These findings show some interesting differences in how Spanish and American students face ethnic isolation. Americans more often accept and justify exclusion, only about friendship and peer groups, without affecting any basic rights, such as the right to education for all. Conversely, Spanish students see all these situations like those that restrict fundamental law, that
is, the right to be treated as a person, regardless of belonging to a particular group. The choice made by most students (rejection of any exclusion) may indicate their awareness of the need to avoid racism. The differences that are observed between Spanish and American students can be explained by sociocultural variables, in particular the experience of ethnic diversity. The culture of the United States in many places is heterogeneous, it also has a certain history of slavery based on ethnicity, and in Spain, the heterogeneity of the population is a new phenomenon that has been the result of recent immigration. This indicates that exclusion problems and ethnic conflicts are not so pronounced as in countries with long multi-ethnic traditions. Frequent, close, and voluntary contacts with minority groups increase tolerance. Thus, racial diversity with strong interracial ties should form a tolerant attitude towards racial groups. However, strong ties are not important to everyone. For people of non-European descent, strong ties that were racially different were associated with a high level of tolerance but had no influence on the attitude of people of European descent. In other words, persons who themselves belong to ethnic minorities, generalizing their own experience of discrimination, are becoming more and more inclusive and tolerant towards other minorities. And people who are already members of the dominant population, see their close ties with people of ethnic minorities as unusual, witch does not lead to a long-term effect on tolerance as a whole. The social class, level of education and employment are strong predictors of tolerance, while people employed in middle-class jobs are more tolerant towards ethnic minorities than people employed in working-class jobs (Navarro & Enesco, 2005). Cote, Andersen and Erickson (2009) have noted that a greater variety of contacts with a high status in society is associated with greater tolerance, and a variety of relationships with a low level of social status is associated with less tolerance.
Tolerance tends to increase when knowledge of "others" grows. This hypothesis is due to two mechanisms. The first is direct contact with people from different groups. "People learn more about those with whom they have direct contact" (Pettigrew, 1998). The second is the relationship between education and tolerance (Bobo and Licari, 1989), according to this point of view, educated people are better, than less educated, able to disclose stereotypes and openly see people from other groups.
Research results. A study was conducted to identify the level of ethnic tolerance of Ukrainians and the peculiarities of their perception of other ethnic groups, such as Russians, Gypsies, Blacks and Arabs.
The study involved 89 people aged 18 to 27 years old, mainly students of higher education institutions in Kyiv, 60% of the sample were women, and 40% were men. All representatives of the sample were Ukrainian.
Objectives of the study:
1. To determine the level and characteristics of ethnic tolerance of Ukrainian students.
2. To study the peculiarities of perception and ethnic heterostereotypes by Ukrainian student of Russians, Gypsies, Blacks and Arabs.
The main research methods were: methods of theoretical knowledge, methods of collecting empirical data, as well as methods of mathematical statistics, that was processed on the computer program SPSS-22. All methods were adapted in accordance with the objectives of the study.
To achieve the objectives of the study, the following techniques were used:
• express questionnaire "Tolerance Index" (G.U. Soldatova, O. A. Kravtsov, O. E. Khukhlaev). The questionnaire aims to measure the general level of tolerance, as well as to assess three types of tolerance -ethnic, social and personal. It reflects the general attitude towards the world and other people, social attitudes in different spheres of interaction where tolerance/intolerance of the person can be shown. The sub-scale "ethnic tolerance" reveals a person's attitude towards representatives of other ethnic groups and attitudes in the field of intercultural interaction.
• Semantic Differential Method for identifying ethnic stereotypes (developed using the minimum context method). The semantic differential method is a combination of the method of controlled associations and scaling. The measured objects (concepts, images, characters, etc.) are evaluated on a series of bipolar gradual scales, the poles of which are usually given verbally. It allowed us to find a system of latent factors within which an individual evaluates objects. The construction of semantic spaces is based on the use of factor analysis, which allows to reduce the output space, in which role positions are differentiated, and to reduce many interdependent roles to generalized factors that combine similar role stereotypes in one or two dimensions.
One of the objectives of the study was to determine the level of ethnic tolerance of Ukrainian students, therefore, the scale of ethnic tolerance was chosen from the scales available using the "Tolerance Index" technique. It was found that the total score for tolerance among respondents is 76 - the average. The indicator of ethnic tolerance is equal to 27 points, which is also an average.
The sample has a normal distribution of ethnic tolerance values - the highest number of people had an average level of ethnic tolerance. Low and high levels were characteristic of a relatively small number of persons, with more persons having a low level of ethnic tolerance than those with a high level of ethnic tolerance (Chart 1). The study shows 59 people have average tolerance (66%), 17 people have a low level (19%), and 13 people have a high level (15%).
Levels of ethnic tolerance
15% 19%
66%
low level ■ average level ■ high level
Chart 1. Distribution of existing levels of ethnic tolerance among the sample
The average level of ethnic tolerance of our respondents indicates that they can behave differently in situations with representatives of different ethnic groups and their attitude will largely depend on the conditions of interaction, rather than on established ethnic stereotypes. This result may also indicate a certain lack of understanding of other ethnicities, lack of communication with them and blurring of ethnic stereotypes.
In order to determine how true this is, a study was conducted on how representatives of other ethnic
groups are perceived and what images and heterostereotypes exist in the minds of Ukrainian students.
To achieve this goal, a form of semantic differential was created using a set of constructs of the psycho-semantic technique of minimal context. Then, respondents according to this semantic differential evaluated Russians, Gypsies, Blacks and Arabs. These ethnic groups were chosen in order to capture ethnic features as best as possible. The resulting constructs describing the stereotypical images of ethnic groups are shown in table 1.
Table 1.
Constructs that are part of the factors of images of other ethnic groups.
№ Pole 1 Pole 2
1 Economically developed 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Economically backward
2 Friendly 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Selfish
3 Change the place of residence 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Reside in the same territory
4 Calm 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Emotional
5 Responsible 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Irresponsible
6 Equal relations between the sexes 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Domination of men
7 Sly 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Straightforward
8 Cheat 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Not prone to cheating
9 Complain 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Overcome difficulties
10 Ambitious 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Do not have goals in life
11 Purposeful 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Have a passive way of life
12 Attractive 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Unattractive
13 Reside on a specific territory 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Resettlement around the world
14 Persecuted 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Not persecuted
15 Greedy 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Generous
16 Have their own culture 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Adapt to other cultures
17 Intelligent 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Uneducated
18 Alcohol abuse 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Lead a healthy lifestyle
19 Independent 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Dependent
20 Conservatives 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Open to new experience
21 Cause affection 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Cause hostility
22 Optimists 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Pessimists
23 Hard-working 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Lazy
24 Respectable 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Despised
25 Cultural 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Torn apart from Culture
26 Religious 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Non-religious
Factor analysis of respondents' answers was carried out separately for each ethnic group, which allowed to obtain a more general and meaningful structure of the views of the representatives of the Russians, Gypsies, Blacks and Arabs ethnic groups.
The analysis took into account the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) and Barlett's Test of Sphericity (Bartlett'sTest). The KMO
score was greater than 0.5 and Bartlett'sTest was 0 - indicating that the factor analysis was valid for specific data and sampling.
For each ethnic group, specific factors were found, according to which the study evaluated the proposed ethnic groups. The research has shown 7 factors for the assessment of Russians, Blacks and Arabs and 9 factors for of Gypsies (Table 2).
Table 2.
Factorial structure of images of representatives of different ethnic groups in the consciousness of Ukrain-_ian student youth_
Factors in the perception of the representative of the ethnic group
Russian self-sufficiency, sincerity, authority, way and attitude to life, territory of residence, attractiveness
Arab lifestyle, religiosity, intelligence, responsibility, dominance, attractiveness, culture.
Black attractiveness, openness, intelligence, lifestyle, athleticism, sincerity, attitude to life.
Gypsy attractiveness, purposefulness, lifestyle, dominance, life position, emotionality, territory of residence, tendency to cheat, cultural.
Among the factors mentioned above, the dominance factor must be explained - this is a dimension that characterizes the characteristics of relations between the sexes, economic development, optimism.
It should also be noted that the order of presentation of factors corresponds to their significance in the structure of perception of an ethnic group. The factor of attractiveness of appearance takes the first place precisely in the perception of Gypsies and Blacks - ethnic groups, with representatives of which Ukrainian students have very few direct contacts and knowledge about them. The fact that the attractiveness factor in the perception of Russians is in the last place may indicate that they generally have an average European-like appearance in the minds of Ukrainian students.
Specific factors in the perception of ethnic groups were found, for example, for Russians - self-sufficiency and authority, athleticism - for Blacks, and emotionality and a tendency to cheat for Gypsy. In relation to the Arabs, the respondents noted their religiosity and a special culture of relations between men and women, the authority of men.
Thus, depending on which ethnic group respondents evaluated, constructs were grouped in different ways. This indicates that each ethnic group is represented in the imagination of Ukrainian students in a unique way, so we can quite confidently say that a certain system of ideas and stereotypes about each ethnic group has already been formed. For example, in the imagination of student youth, Russians appear to be self-sufficient and authoritative, this can be explained by Russia's influence. Arabs are noted as very religious people. The high number of black people in the world football teams has made them appear more athletic than others. As for the Gypsies, the negative experience of dealing with them has led to the perception that all ethnic group is perceived as distrustful.
Conclusions. Hence, the leading psychological aspects of interethnic interaction are ethnic tolerance and perceptions by people of different nationalities, expressed through ethnic stereotypes.
Interethnic tolerance provides an opportunity to interact freely and successfully with other people in a multicultural society, promotes constructive interethnic interaction and ensures mutual understanding. An important component of international communication is also the perceptual side, which promotes an understanding of each other. The mechanisms of this perception depend on the patterns of communication and so-cio-psychological features of interaction of representatives of various ethnic groups, in particular on the specific manifestation of ethnic stereotypes in these processes. The ethnic stereotype is an extremely stable image of an ethnic group that is easily spread to all its members.
The study revealed the characteristics of ethnic groups that Ukrainian students are guided by when interacting with these ethnic groups and found an average level of ethnic tolerance among Ukrainian students.
It was found that there is no clearly formed image of the representatives of the blacks. This can be explained by the fact that there are not so many representatives of them in Ukraine, and there are no trends in the evaluation. In general, each ethnic group has its own special image in the eyes of student youth. Some images are more neutral, like Arabs and Nigerians, as well as those that are perceived quite negatively.
Ethnic tolerance is influenced by a number of objective and subjective factors. Analyzing the causes, the formation and search for ways to reduce the impact of negative catalysts on it contributes to the solution of the problem of interethnic contradictions and conflicts. Psychologists should develop an ethnopolitical strategy based on the principles of a tolerant attitude towards others, ethnosociolization of youth and attract them to universal values, the priority of which are the ideas of humanism, democracy and human rights.
Prospects for further research. In further studies, it is necessary to study the factors affecting the level of ethnic tolerance and the perception of other ethnic groups, to identify the features of the expression of heterostereotypes relative to other ethnic groups in different age and demographic groups.
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СОЦИАЛЬНОЕ ВОСПРИЯТИЕ ПРИЕМНОГО РЕБЕНКА В ЗАМЕЩАЮЩЕЙ СЕМЬЕ
Стреленко А.А.
Учреждение образования «Витебский государственный университет имени П.М. Машерова», доцент кафедры прикладной психологии, кандидат психологических наук, доцент
SOCIAL PERCEPTION OF THE FOSTER CHILD AT THE FOSTERS FAMILI
Strelenko A.
Educational Establishment «Vitebsk State P.M. Masherov University», associate Professor of applied psychology, candidate of psychological sciences, associate Professor
Аннотация
Статья посвящена одной из актуальных проблем психологии - проблеме образа приемного ребенка в сознании замещающих родителей. В теоретическом анализе отмечаются показатели официальной статистики Республики Беларусь в отношении социально-психологических проблем семьи и детей. Приводятся результаты исследования по определению особенностей социально-перцептивных образов замещающих родителей. Анализируются показатели структуры Я-образов замещающих матерей, Ты-образов (приемных детей и супругов) в сознании замещающих матерей.
Abstract
The article is devoted to one of the actual problems — the problem of the image of the foster child in the mind of the foster mother. The theoretical analysis provides indicators of official statistics of the Republic of Belarus in relation to problems of the family and children. The results of the study to determine the characteristics of socio-perceptual images of substitute parents are given. The indicators of the structure of I-images of foster mothers, You-images (foster children and spouses) in the minds of substitute mothers are analyzed.
Ключевые слова: Я-образ, Ты-образ, приемный ребенок, замещающие родители, замещающие матери, приемно-замещающие семьи.
Keywords: I-image, You-image, foster child, foster parents, foster mother, foster family.
