CC BY
210
yflK 947.088 : 331.556.4"201" DOI 10.24411/1026-8804-2020-10007
Problems of Rental Housing and Living Conditions of Foreign Labour Migrants in Russian Cities (the 2010s)1
Mayu Michigami,
Niigata State University, Niigata, Japan. E-mail: michigami@econ.niigata-u.ac.jp
The core of the post-Soviet reforms in the housing sector was privatization, and, as a result, the main part of housing passed into private ownership in Russia. However, sale and purchase transactions are made in the emerged housing market, while the proportion of rental leases is small and is largely carried out not through commercial structures but through individuals and is hidden in the "shadow" sector. The article deals with the specifics of conditions of housing rent by foreign labour migrants from individuals, which is one of the important aspects of the study of the Russian real estate market. This study is based on the results of the original sociological survey of 1003 labour migrants conducted by the author in 25 Russian cities in 2017 and 2018. This survey is unique in the quantitative coverage of respondents (1003) and cities (25). In addition, the paper contains exclusive information about the real accommodation conditions of labour immigrants in Russia. The survey results of some cities of the Russian Far East are particularly presented: Vladivostok, Khabarovsk, Ussuriysk, Partizansk, and Dalnerechensk. The focused labour migrants are mainly from Ukraine, Central Asia, Belarus, Caucasian regions; therefore, the questionnaire survey was conducted in Russian language. The following issues are analysed: real housing problems of labour migrants, their living standards and real estate transactions, existence or lack of inequality by region, job and nationalities among immigrants, the policy of solving immigrants' housing problems and its significance.
Keywords: housing problem, utilities, immigrant labour, inequality, housing ^ market, Russia.
CO -
° 1 The study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI, Grant Numbers 15KK0079, 26504005,
^ 17K02108, 19H01478 and 2018 Project Based Collaboration Research and 2019 visit-
^ ing associate professor program at Slavic Eurasian Research Center, Hokkaido Univer-
§ sity. Our sociological survey conducted by co-research with Professor S.V. Ryazantsev,
O
Director of Institute of Social-Political Research, RAS, Moscow.
Проблемы аренды жилья и условий проживания иностранных трудовых мигрантов в городах России (2010-е гг.)2.
Маю Митигами, Ph.D (экономика), доцент экономического факультета Государственного университета Ниигаты, Ниигата. E-mail: michigami@econ.niigata-u.ac.jp.
Стержнем постсоветского реформирования в жилищной сфере стала приватизация, в результате которой основная часть жилья в России перешла в частную собственность. При этом на образовавшемся рынке в основном заключаются сделки купли-продажи, в то время как на аренду приходится лишь небольшая их доля, да и та в значительной степени осуществляется не через коммерческие структуры, а через физических лиц и скрывается в «теневом» секторе. В статье рассматривается специфика условий аренды жилья у частных лиц иностранными трудовыми мигрантами, что является одним из важных аспектов изучения российского рынка недвижимости. Данное исследование основано на результатах оригинального социологического опроса 1003 трудовых мигрантов, проведённого автором в 25 российских городах в 2017 и 2018 гг. Опрос исключителен по количественному охвату респондентов и населённых пунктов. Кроме того, работа содержит уникальные сведения о реальных условиях жизни трудовых иммигрантов в России. Специально представлены результаты исследования в некоторых городах Дальнего Востока России: Владивостоке, Хабаровске, Уссурийске, Партизанске и Дальнереченске. Трудовые мигранты, на которых сфокусировано внимание, в основном прибыли с Украины, из Центральной Азии, Беларуси, кавказских регионов, поэтому опрос проводился на русском языке. Рассмотрены следующие вопросы: реальные жилищные проблемы трудовых мигрантов, их уровень жизни и сделки с недвижимостью; наличие или отсутствие неравенства между иммигрантами по регионам, профессиям и национальностям; политика разрешения жилищных проблем иммигрантов и её значение. Ключевые слова: жилищная проблема, коммунальные услуги, труд иммигрантов, неравенство, рынок жилья, Россия.
INTRODUCTION
The market reforms that began in Russia in the 1990s have affected all aspects of society. In the housing sector, the starting point for the transformation of property relations became the Laws of the Russian Federation No. 1541-1 "On privatization of housing stock in the Russian Federation"
2 Исследование выполнено при финансовой поддержке гранта Японского общества ^
продвижения наук Какенхи, № 15KK0079, № 26504005, № 17K02108, № 19Х01478, §
совместного проектного исследования 2018 г. и программы «Приглашённый до- ^ цент» 2019 г. в Центре Славянско-Евразийских исследований Университета Хоккайдо. Наше социологическое исследование проводилось совместно с профессором ^
С.В.Рязанцевым, директором Института социально-политических исследований §
РАН, г. Москва. ^
of July 4, 1991 and No. 4218-1 "On the basics of Federal housing policy" of December 24, 1992. The state continued legal regulation of this sector, adopting in 2004 a package of 27 bills on the development of the affordable housing market and the Housing code of the Russian Federation (No. 188-FL of December 29, 2004). As a result of the long-term free privatization, a key characteristic of the Russian housing stock has become a high share of private home ownership (85% in 2017, official data). However, the purchase-sell housing transaction mainly circulates in the housing market, while rental accounts for only a small share (7% in 2017, official data), meanwhile largely located in the "shadow" sector of the Russian economy [14, p. 14].
Russia's rental housing has two types: public (social) and private ones (by individuals, or by commercial real-estator). The peculiarity of the latter is that the individual homeowner, providing their housing for rent, does not report their income to the tax authorities. Therefore, it is difficult for us to catch the exact size of private rental housing market, especially private individual rental housing circulation. According to experts, in the mid-2010s, about 4 mln families in Russia rented housing on market terms, of which 3.3 mln (i.e. 85.5%) - from individuals [10, p. 7].
In this paper, we focus on the private rental housing, highlighting its specific segment - rental housing by immigrants. Russia is one of countries in the world, which accepts many labor migrants. Their housing transaction is one of important aspects in Russia's real estate market. Therefore, we challenge to approach the fundamental drives of Russia's housing market from the bottom or origin of market.
Another aspect of our unique research is signifying the real living standard for labor immigrants in Russia, with the respect to housing and their daily life. This issue is currently of scientific interest in relation to migrants around the world.
METHODS
We collected respondent's proportion, according to ranking by Rosstat's immigrant' inflow data for 12 months of 2015. Our total respondents are 1003 people. All of them are legal immigrants with patent and permission for labor in Russia. They are not seasonal migrant labor. The formations of respondents by ethnics are Tadzhikistan (344), Uzbekistan (225), Ukraine (113), Kyrgyzstan (83), Armenia (51), Azerbaijan (42), Belarus (18), Kazakhstan (19), others (108): China, North Korea, Vietnam, Moldova, Mongolia, Turkey, Italy, 2 and Georgia. We try to guarantee the truth of respondent's answer by Russian
0 or compatriots asking them as interviewer.
g The formations of respondents by sex: man — 79.2%, female — 20.8%.
cl Our result is compatible to the proportion of permissions for working and Î patents in Russia in 2015: man — 85% and female — 15%. Average age of our
1 questionnaire is 34.6 years old. Our respondents are to 29 years old (37.1%), I 30—39 years old (32.2%), 40—49 years old (23.9%), and older than
50 years old (6.7%). The proportion of persons permitted for working and patent in Russia in 2015 is to 29 years old (50.0%), 30-39 years old (26.0%), 40-49 years old (21.0%), and older than 50 years old (6.0%).
We selected for the survey 25 Russian cities (see also the location of map in fig. 1) with population: more than 1 mln — Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Ekaterinburg; 500 thsd to 1 mln — Khabarovsk, Vladivostok; 250 to 500 thsd — Kaluga, Stavropol, Surgut, Tomsk; 100 to 250 thsd — Podolsk, Serpukhov, Pyatigorsk, Nefteyugansk, Ussuriysk; 50 to 100 thsd — Chekhov, Pushkin, Tikhvin, Budyonnovsk, Sysert; less than 50 thsd — Partizansk, Dalnerechensk, Langepas, Lyantor, Blagodarny, and Neftekamsk.
We asked 68 questions concerning not only the housing conditions of immigrants, but also their daily lives and their job: for example, the reason
ERS-HSSs
Scale 1: 22 000 000
Budyonnovsk~ eftekumsk
Sys
?rinbui ?t and Aramil
Lyantor .t*
,angepas
respondents by countries, %
■ Uzbekistan
■ Tajikistan
□ Ukraine
■ Kyrgyzstan
■ Armenia
□ Azerbaijan
□ Belarus
□ Kazakhstan
■ Other countries
Sex ratio of respondents, %
I Males I Females
Number of respondents, people
Q More than 70 Q 50-70 O 30-50 O 10-30 o Less than 30
DDalnere uriysk
Partizan: Vladivostol
Structure of
Million - person cities, 268 Small cities, 134 Towns, 230
Yekaterinburg 17 Pyatigorsk 4 Neftekumsk 10
Saint Petersburg 30 Ussuriysk 13 Blagodarny 12
Moscow 221 Nefteyugansk 27 Dalnerechensk 26
Serpukhov 36 Partizansk 40
Khabarovsk 61 Podolsk 54 Lyantor 70
Vladivostok 89 Large towns, 103 Langepas 72
Cities, 115 Budyonnovsk 3
Stavropol 6 Tikhvin 12
Kaluga 15 Sysert and Aramil 19
Surgut 41 Pushkin 22
Tomsk 53 Chekhov 47
Fig. 1. Survey area. Source: compiled by author
to come to Russia, the kind of job, problems, housing condition, rent fee etc. The term of our questionnaire survey is from June in 2017 to March in 2018. Finally, we collected the total number of respondents — 1003 persons (average age — 34.6 years old, from oldest 65 years old to youngest 18 years old). Such questionnaire survey is just a few and valuable that conducted for lots of respondents and in cities all round Russia. In the previous literature, Institute of Socio-economic Studies of Population (RAS) conducted survey only in Taganrog city of Russia in 2014 [5]. Therefore, our survey has the uniqueness to show the real inside of immigrants to make definitely careful consideration to their human rights and privacy. Especially, even in analytical research by real estator and official statistical service, there is almost no the average monthly rent of rental housing data in all regions of Russia.
Russia's total population is 144 mln population. In the 2000s, the country annually received about 400—500 thsd people from abroad. Table 1 contains the net migration people. It shows the main groups of migrants in Russia by country of exit. Our questionnaire survey also follows that formation. Table 2 shows the increase/decrease of net migration on 25 cities of our survey. 15 of all 25 cities are the regions that net migration increases, except for 10 cities, which located in the Far East and South Federal Districts of Russian Federation.
Table 1
Net migration into Russia (unit: people)
^^^V'ear 2000 2005 2010 2013 2014 2015 2016
Azerbaijan 11 719 3 326 13 389 17 246 12 394 10 660 10 439
Armenia 14 432 6 961 19 192 32 179 24 006 20 533 11 993
Belarus -3 002 763 1 995 3 717 6 757 4 909 2 127
Kazakhstan 106 990 39 508 20 533 40 156 40 814 34 767 37 130
Kyrgyzstan 13 679 15 119 20 260 19 812 15 259 9 935 11 043
Moldova 9 415 5 783 11 197 20 628 17 574 17 380 14 364
Tadzhikistan 9 885 4 283 17 494 33 649 19 362 11 362 27 288
Uzbekistan 37 724 29 841 23 266 67 266 37 096 -20 668 19 672
Ukraine 39 147 18 120 21 230 36 411 94 370 14 6131 11 8819
Georgia 18 411 4 806 4 786 6 112 4 218 3 309 2 294
Vietnam 149 69 889 1 497 572 1 004 394
Italy -226 -203 -137 36 21 -109 -16
China 463 -24 1 132 622 1 956 -778 -810
North Korea -15 0 44 1 132 1 519 -401 1 300
Mongolia 51 -12 25 140 59 38 40
Turkey 60 1 415 1 261 234 -108 312
Total 213 610 107 432 158 078 295 859 280 328 245 384 261 948
Source: authors' calculation from Rosstat website.
Table 2
Coefficient of net migration rate, per 1000 population in 2016*
Coefficient value Regions in Russia, which 25 cities of our survey are located
More than +4 Moscow, Podolsk, Chekhov, Serpukhov, Kaluga, St. Petersburg, Pushkin, Tikhvin
+1 to +4 Surgut, Nefteyugansk, Langepas, Lyantor
-1 to +1 Ekaterinburg, Sysert, Tomsk
-4 to -1 Khabarovsk, Vladivostok, Ussuriysk, Partizansk, Dalnerechensk, Stavropol, Blagodarny, Pyatigorsk, Budyonnovsk, Neftekamsk
Less than -4 None
* Coefficient of net migration rate = [(Immigrate - Emigrate) / Regional Population] *1000. Source: compiled by author from the table 1 in [5, p. 94].
Note, however, that table 1 in [5, p. 94] shows the level of federal regions (so called in Russian, oblast, krai, and republic that form the Russian Federation), which these 25 cities included in, not the level of city.
LITERATURE REVIEW
In the previous literature, they mainly have discussed the governance aspects against immigrant inflow in the urban districts, especially in the city of Moscow. First, the issue is the segregation of immigrant districts and the correlation between urban enlargement and immigration. One of reasons is the confliction between immigrants and local residents. Another reason is a reflection of immigrants' inflow into the regional housing market.
Now we can discuss a hypothesis. Does immigrants' inflow reflect housing price or rental fee, giving a pressure downward or upward? The previous literatures divided into two views. On the one hand, ethnic and cultural conflicts in immigrant's settlements bring downward housing price in the high-density district of immigrants [2; 3; 4; 6; 8; 16; 17]. Increasing of immigrant from Central Asia and Caucasian reflected the housing price level of their residential districts in Moscow. The authors had researched the case of Moscow city.
In some geographer and demographer's previous literature [3; 4; 8; 18; 20], they researched the urban space pattern of immigrant labor settlements and their life culture, where do they live in Moscow. Especially, since 1990's, in- j¡ creasing immigrant inflow into Moscow have brought some phenomenon of ¿ urban Moscow: 1) the downward pressure of housing price in some districts S of Moscow, 2) the urban agglomeration and enlargement, 3) high density of apopulation, 4) ethnic and cultural conflict between residents and immigrants. Í To sum them up simply, they consider the urban space management connect- | ed with migration administration. In fact, it is difficult to segregate immigrant £
residents in Moscow and Russian regions. Therefore, their implicit message is not to integrate but to control immigrants, beside it, to do segregate them if possible in Russia.
On the other hand, I. Kashnitsky and M. Gunko [19] pointed econometri-cally that we could not find the correlation between housing prices and intensities of in-migration at the level of city districts of Moscow. First, it is difficult for us to prove it econometrically that increasing of immigrant inflow into some of city districts would reflect on the housing price or rental fee level of their residential districts in Moscow. The level of price and rental fee affect complicatedly by multiple reasons: population movement, business cycle, interest rate, the volume of new housing construction, and the city's urban development plan etc.
In addition to it, L. Ashkenazi and M. Vekshtein [2] show the fact that the lender prefers to lend their apartment for only Russian to prevent some ethnic confliction from Central Asia and Caucasus and trouble caused by such confliction. This phenomenon shows another aspect of reflects about the correlation between housing market and immigrant inflow. It might bring the segregation of housing market, especially rental housing market in Russia. Immigrants' inflow does not give a direct reflection to the housing rental-selling price but it creates another segment of housing market in Russia. There is "divided market" of housing between foreign business-persons, Russians and labor immigrants.
Fig. 2 is map of housing prices in the Russian Federation according to Rosstat [11]. On it, three solid lined circles are the regions where the housing price level is higher than Federal average (Federal average — 46.4 thsd per sq. m). As far as we go to the case of Moscow and Leningrad regions, it seems that
<
White: n.a. Average of Russian Federation: 46.6
Fig. 2. Average housing price (1 thsd rub. per sq. m) in 2012. Source: [11; 24]
O Û_
immigrant inflow might give a pressure upward to housing price. On the other hand, one dotted lined circle is region that has lower price than average. This region located in Caucasus area continues to decrease their population and net migration. Therefore, it seems that immigration outflow might give a pressure downward to housing price. We can consider that there is the correlation between immigration inflow and the regional housing price in these regions.
However, on the level of Russian Federation, we cannot make a clear that labor immigrants could reflect housing price or not. In fig. 2, one solid lined region located in the Far East is the region that we know well in Russia as the population continues to decrease in this region (see also Khabarovsk, Vladivostok, Ussuriysk, Partizansk, and Dalnerechensk in table 2). Nevertheless, their housing price is higher than average. It is difficult for us to prove the statistically significant correlation between immigrant inflow and the housing price at any other regions all over the Russian Federation. We would like to try to establish the relation between the immigrant inflow and housing market by questionnaire survey. For this purpose, we introduce our original idea to analyze the relation.
We have the original image of housing market in Russia. That is "multi-layered structure" of it (fig. 3). Russia's housing market has some stratum according to categorized customers' demand: elite class, business class, economy class, and rental apartment, studio, dormitory, dacha, container etc. The bottom is for labor migrants' housing circulation at the purpose of using temporal residence according to their level of rental fee. We regard their transaction of housing as the nature of origin of market. Their deals mainly connect through "word of mouth" between individuals, relatives and acquaintance. By climbing up the stratum, there deals circulate through real-estator. In addition, their
[Formal real estate market]
[Informal real estate market]
CL
Low
Categorized housing market
High r_
Condominium apartment
Elite Class
Business Class
Standard Class (Economy Class)
Lower class
Detached housing
Cottage
and
dacha
Uncertain market share
Buy & Sell
Private Rental
Fig. 3. Images of multi-layered structure of Russia's housing market. Source: compiled by author and [21; 23]
housing use is regular settlement and their transaction is mainly selling and buying. It seems that the mobility and volume of housing deals at the bottom are higher and larger than the one of upper side. The growth of the rental housing market mainly circulates in the lower part of the housing market. For the most part, it depends on demand from labor immigrants in Russia. That might reflect to all of Russia's housing market dynamics through the price discrimination. We will try to confirm the bottom side of this our original image and idea with our questionnaire survey.
Here, we add another academic topic — "price discrimination" on micro economic theory in this discussion. From the real estator's website of Moscow (for example, TSIAN [15]), we can see that housing lenders provide two types price for foreigners or use the constraint condition depending on the customers. The price level on the site is higher than the average in Moscow. In actual, the author had the same experience during finding apartment at Moscow and Saint Petersburg in 2017.
Quite often, the lender set such constraint condition: "only for Russian" or "except for Central Asian" etc. L. Ashkenazi and M. Vekshtein [2] discuss this fact directly. It seems that there is segregation of rental housing market in Russia and some problems related in labor immigrants under urbanization. In addition, this transaction can become the hurdle for foreigner and immigrant labor to find the rental housing.
Beside the condition, from author's investigation, the price level was not stable rigidly. It could negotiate depending on the nationality. Sometimes, the lender uses the different price depending on the customers. When foreigner (not Russian language speaker) asked to the lender by phone, the price was the same as on the website. Even with negotiation subjected to rent for longer days, price for foreigner did not depreciate to the half level of website price, but only about 20% price down. However, when Russian asked to the lender by phone, the price level was initially discounted by half without negotiation. The half level of website price is the almost average level in the analyst's data [7]. From author's investigation, these prices were about double price, not only located in the most center of Moscow but also in other area of Moscow. The price for foreigner is higher, sometimes twice higher than the price level for Russian.
This pricing makes us remind "price discrimination" and "personalized pricing" in the micro economic theory. Now this topic is discussed about the relevance of e-commerce and the shopping though the internet [13; 22]. In real life, we can see the similar pricing when same goods are sold with dif-^ ferent price in the different shop: for example, on the one hand, a same yogurt drink is sold with 38 rub. in store A. On the other hand, it is sold with 51 rub. S in store B (expensive store). We also confronted this pricing on the apart-cl ment transaction in Moscow. Provider sets the different price for the same ^ rental housing: (A) for foreign business person-labor immigrant — expensive I price (higher than average), (B) for Russian — average price, (C) for Central £ Asian and other labor immigrant — don't lend or lower price than average.
Sometimes their price is not visible. In micro economic theory, we consider the reason why price elasticity of demand for housing is different between foreign business person immigrant (low) and non-skilled immigrant (high). We will try to confirm our original image and idea "as multi-layered stratum" of housing market in Russia from the viewpoint of immigrants' housing with our questionnaire survey.
RESULTS
Our original questionnaire survey uniquely shows a lot of real immigrant's housing. In this paper, we focus on the rent fee level of immigrant's rental housing and their real living space for the sake of a space constraint. The average level of one room apartment's rental fee on the real estate website TSIAN-Moscow [15] (tentative calculation by author) is average 16 416 rub., median — 16 000 rub., min — 5000 rub., max — 38 000 rub. According to one of our surveys average level is 8527 rub., median — 6000 rub., min — 0 rub., max — 35 000 rub. Our outcome is very lower than market price. All our outcome of housing average fee is shown in table 3. Now average monthly rent fee in Moscow by real-estator is the followings: economy class (standard) built in the era of USSR one room apartment — 30 thsd rub.; two rooms apartment — about 37.5 thsd rub.; three rooms apartment — 47 thsd rub. [9]. These price levels are for Russian people, not for foreigners and labor migrants. We really find low level of immigrant rent and see the bottom aspect of housing market by our questionnaire survey.
The comparison between our results of rent fee in 25 cities of Russia and average by author's calculation using the data of popular rental housing website in Russia "Avito.ru" [1], shows that the rent level of immigrant housing is much lower than the average level on the website in all 25 cities. Our result proves that immigrants' rental housing fee and transactions are located on the bottom of housing market in Russia. In addition, it is also found that Russia's rental housing market has one different segment for immigrants. According table 3, we can see another trend. Usually the rent level of center city is highest of their neighbor regions. Our results show not only the usual figure, but also another fact like "donuts phenomenon of urban", that is enlargement of urban with the respect to rental fee level. The rent level in Serpukhov city is higher than in Moscow, which is 100 km far from the center Moscow region. The level of Tikhvin city is also high as well as the case of Serpukhov city. Average rent per sq. m in Tikhvin is even higher than in St. Petersburg, which is 220 km j¡ far from the center city of Leningrad region. The same trend similarly shows ¿ in the Stavropol and Surgut region. The rent level of some cities, which locate far from center city, is high, compared with the level of center. o.
We can show the actual labor immigrant's housing standard in Far East Í Russian cities (table 4). Except for Khabarovsk, their housing standard is very | low, compared with federal average by Rosstat (table 5). Our survey newly and £
Table 3
Average housing rental fee by region
Distance Qty Ave. rent (rub.) Ave. rent per sq. m (rub.)
center Moscow 8 527.40 273.5
40km Podolsk 5 350.00 160.7
80km Chekhov 5 877.55 206.3
100km Serpukhov 10 875.00 311.5
188km Kaluga 6 533.33 229.0
center Vladivostok 8 086.90 297.7
100km Ussuriysk 5 946.15 201.8
170km Partizansk 5 690.00 261.2
400km Dalnerechensk 5 148.00 204.6
center Stavropol 5 911.76 251.6
116km Blagodarny 6 615.38 147.5
144km Pyatigorsk 6 750.00 270.0
173km Budyonnovsk 9 300.00 244.7
240km Neftekumsk 4 300.00 184.5
center St. Petersburg 9 250.00 238.8
24km Pushkin 5 857.14 210.0
220km Tikhvin 9 100.00 260.6
center Ekaterinburg 8 176.25 309.6
50km Sysert 5 438.89 132.1
center Surgut 5 720.45 252.2
46km Nefteyugansk 7 955.56 322.5
96km Langepas 5 450.00 178.3
77km Lyantor 5 738.10 143.7
Khabarovsk 16 297.62 436.7
Tomsk 8 360.48 265.0
Total ave. 7 583.05 242.3
Source: author's calculation by results of our questionnaire survey.
concretely pointed the existence of two-step movement in 25 cities of Russia. Immigrants' rental housing fee is very low than the average of official data. Our results of the chi-square test of equivalence by regions are the following: = Housing area - Chi2 = 3597.181, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.390; Housing rental fee - Chi2 = 3894.245, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.412; and Number of Cohabits tant - Chi2 = 662.147, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.237. There are statistically sig-cl nificant regional differences, especially in the average level of housing rental i fee. Khabarovsk and Vladivostok's housing rent fee per capita is expensive and I comparable with Moscow. The level of rent fee in Khabarovsk and Vladivostok £ may be heavy burden for immigrants.
Table 4
Rental fee, number of cohabitants and area for immigrants housing: the case of cities in Russian Far East and Moscow
City Average rental fee per capita (rub.) Average rental fee per apartment (rub.) Average number of cohabitants (number) Average area (sq. m) Rental fee per sq. m (rub.) Average area per capita (sq. m)
Vladivostok 8 086.90 24 073.41 3.98 28.16 854.92 7.1
Khabarovsk 16 297.62 39 388.33 3.42 40.23 978.98 11.8
Dalnerechensk 5 148.00 12 014.33 3.33 26.21 458.42 7.9
Partizansk 5 690.00 15 268.54 3.68 21.78 701.02 5.9
Ussuriysk 5 946.15 19 213.88 4.23 29.46 652.17 7.0
Moscow 8 527.40 30 123.93 4.53 31.18 966.14 6.9
Total 7 583.05 21 955.05 3.89 31.83 689.75 8.2
Source: results of author's survey.
Table 5
Comparison to average of Russian Federation by Rosstat
Our survey Rosstat RF
Ave. sq. m 31.3 54.5
Ave. sq. m per capita 10.4 24.4
Source: [12] and results of author's survey.
Table 6
Equipped level of housing utility for immigrants in the Russian Far East, %
Characteristic City Water Sewage Heating Gas Hot water Electricity Bath & toilet Common bathroom beside inside of room Kitchen Common kitchen Electric or gas cooking range
Vladivostok 85.9 85.9 82.4 8.2 75.3 100.0 84.7 12.9 81.2 9.4 88.2
Khabarovsk 60.0 60.0 80.0 56.0 62.0 98.0 69.4 26.5 74.0 22.0 83.7
Dalnerechensk 60.0 60.0 68.0 16.0 48.0 100.0 41.7 45.8 48.0 24.0 56.0
Partizansk 36.6 36.6 56.1 9.8 36.6 100.0 36.6 63.4 32.5 45.0 36.6
Ussuriysk 84.6 84.6 84.6 7.7 69.2 84.6 46.2 53.8 53.8 38.5 69.2
Moscow 68.2 58.4 94.4 28.8 91.0 99.1 73.0 26.6 71.7 25.8 88.4
Total 73.6 61.7 87.0 29.5 69.6 98.6 65.6 32.3 65.5 29.9 76.1
Source: results of author's survey. £
Table 6 shows our results of equipped level of housing utilities for immigrants. Our results of the chi-square test of equivalence by regions are the following. Water: Chi2 = 157.794, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.397, Sewage: Chi2 = 250.619, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.500, Heating: Chi2 = 118.357, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.344, Gas: Chi2 = 368.946, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.607, Hot water: Chi2 = 300.507, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.548, Electricity: Chi2 = 65.863, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.256, Bath and toilet: Chi2 = 364.146, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.301, Kitchen: Chi2 = 262.920, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.363, Electric or Gas Cooking range: Chi2 = 269.402, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.519. There are statistically significant regional differences. Particularly sewage, gas, hot water, and electric or gas cooking ranges have strong regional difference. The equipped level in Partizansk is lower than in other Far Eastern regions. However even in Partizansk, immigrants do not live in rural area. Most of our surveyed immigrants live in the center of city or urban area.
We plotted immigrant respondents' living place and working place in following 5 maps (fig. 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8) Average commuting time to work is 29.13 minutes in Vladivostok, 23.56 minutes in Khabarovsk, 13.56 minutes in Dalnerechensk, 28.30 minutes in Partizansk, 30.00 minutes in Ussuriysk and 25.29 minutes in Total. Immigrants' residents and local residents do not separate in the city. Despite of lack of location difference between immigrant and local residents, it is problem why immigrants' housing condition is lower than the targeted goal or average level of Russian Federation.
Table 7
Immigrants' dissatisfaction for housing conditions in the Russian Far East, %
^n Characteristic City ^N Small area, cramped room Many people cohabitant Darkness Poor ventilated room Noisy street Non repair Coldness Dirty Expensive rent fee
Vladivostok 37.6 38.8 15.3 5.9 9.4 10.6 17.6 4.7 1.2
Khabarovsk 31.3 12.5 14.0 8.3 2.1 20.0 18.0 6.0 40.0
Dalnerechensk 33.3 29.2 24.0 25.0 29.2 36.0 44.0 32.0 8.0
Partizansk 51.3 41.0 12.2 12.8 10.3 36.6 26.8 39.0 4.9
Ussuriysk 53.8 38.5 30.8 30.8 15.4 61.5 23.1 7.7 0.0
Moscow 30.3 25.5 4.3 6.5 5.2 24.0 3.4 1.7 30.5
Total 30.7 17.4 10.2 10.3 11.6 23.6 10.0 4.3 13.1
^ Source: results of author's survey.
H Here is immigrants' dissatisfaction for housing conditions in table 7. cl The main problem of their housing conditions is narrow space by many co-^ habitants. And small populated cities Dalnerechensk, Partizansk, and Ussu-| riysk have dissatisfactions for housing: small space, many people cohabitant, £ poor ventilated, not repaired, coldness and dirty. Our results of the chi-square
г. Владивосток N = 85 анкет
Масштаб 1: 200 000
Пространственное
распределение
респондентов
Место проживания Место работы Места проживания и работы совпадают Время в пути (в 1 см — 10 мин.)
Fig. 4. Working place and living place
in Vladivostok.
Source: compiled by author
г. Хабаровск N = 50 анкет
Масштаб 1:300000
Пространственное
распределение
респондентов
* Место проживания
• Место работы -- Время в пути
(в 1 см — 10 мин.) Время в пути не указано
Fig. 5. Working place and living place
in Khabarovsk.
Source: compiled by author
г. Дальнереченск N = 25 анкет ; ^ Масштаб 1: 200 000 П
Пространственное распределение у респондентов
а Место проживания • Место работы — Время в пути (в 1 см —20 мин.) ^ Время в пути не указано
Fig. 6. Working place and living place in Dalnerechensk. Source: compiled by author
г. Партизанск N = 41 анкет
Масштаб 1:150000
Пространственное распределение респондентов
. Место проживания ' Место работы
■ Время в пути (в 1 см — 20 мин.) • Время в пути не указано
Fig. 7. Working place
and living place in Partizansk.
Source: compiled by author
г. Уссурийск N = 13 анкет
Масштаб 1:200000
Пространственное распределение респондентов
1 Место проживания | Место работы
- Время в пути (в 1 см —10 мин.)
Fig. 8. Working place
and living place in Ussuriysk.
Source: compiled by author
test of equivalence by regions are the following. Small space: Chi2 = 96.312, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.316, Many people cohabitants: Chi2 = 151.089, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.280, Darkness: Chi2 = 90.530, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.300, Poor ventilated: Chi2 = 89.851, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.306, Noisy street: Chi2 = 80.034, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.288, Non repair: Chi2 = 86.995, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.295, Coldness: Chi2 = 105.306, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.324, Dirty: Chi2 = 193.299, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.439, Expensive rent fee: Chi2 = 163.772, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.404. In Khabarovsk, many immigrants are significantly dissatisfied with expensive rent fee.
Table 8
Housing conditions by nationalities
Nationality Average area (sq. m) Average rent fee per capita (rub.) Average rent fee per household (rub.) Average number of cohabitant (N)
Tajikistan 30.56 6 355.71 24 628.39 3.88
Uzbekistan 27.35 6 523.80 27 406.51 4.20
Ukraine 33.27 10 453.61 36 006.87 3.44
Kirgiz 27.20 9 067.90 39 445.37 4.35
Armenia 42.58 8 724.63 31 505.61 3.61
Azerbaijan 51.73 8 666.67 28 816.67 3.33
Belorus 34.20 8 791.67 44 544.44 5.07
Kazakhstan 30.43 13 830.77 44 684.02 3.23
Moldavia 28.52 7 150.00 31 065.52 4.34
Vietnam 37.73 16 318.18 68 239.67 4.18
North Korea 16.89 6 000.00 7 333.33 1.22
China 42.86 5 924.14 29 620.69 5.00
Total 31.83 7 583.05 29 535.21 3.89
Source: results of author's survey.
How large disparity of housing conditions do the tenants have depending on the nationality and job? Our calculation in the survey is shown in tables 8 and 9. Here is the difference of rental fee and housing area by Immigrants' nationality (table 8). Uzbeks, Kyrgyz, Azerbaijanis, North Koreans have a statistically significant difference by average area of housing. Ukrainian, Kazakh, Chi-^ nese, and Vietnamese have a statistically significant difference by average rent
0 fee per capita. North Koreans, Chinese, and Belarusians have a statistically sig-° nificant difference by average number of cohabitants. Our results of the chi-
square test of equivalence by nationalities are the following. Housing area:
1 Chi2 = 4080.622, p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.366, Rent fee: Chi2 = 3289.383, | p = 0.000, Cramer V = 0.328, Number of cohabitant: Chi2 = 590.446, p = 0.000, £ Cramer V = 0.224.
Table 9
Housing conditions by job
Average rent fee per capita (rub.) Average area (sq. m) Average number of cohabitant
Construction 6053.9 30.5 4.0
Housing Utilities 6517.6 27.2 3.8
Trade 9029.8 34.7 3.9
Restaurant, Café, etc. 8342.0 35.6 3.8
Transport 7398.9 30.7 4.1
Agriculture 2562.5 22.1 4.8
House keeper 4745.9 27.2 3.3
Others 9197.4 32.2 3.7
Total 7583.1 31.8 3.9
Source: results of author's survey.
Table 9 shows statistically differences of immigrants' housing conditions by industry. Housing rent fee: Chi2 = 831.770, p = 0.000, Cramer's V = 0.352, Housing area: Chi2 = 887.905, p = 0.000, Cramer's V = 0.359, Number of cohabitant: Chi2 = 126.980, p = 0.002, Cramer's V = 0.136. Labor immigrants in agriculture have cheaper rents and smaller areas compared to those employed in other industries. On the other hand, labor immigrants engaged in housing utilities face high rents and small space. Their housing conditions may be lower than those employed in other industries.
CONCLUSION REMARKS
Immigrants' housing space is very small than Russian Federation's average and goal. The quality problems are a narrow space and non-repaired room. Most labor immigrants live with three persons who are not family members. Their housing is not enough for them to rest. If we approach to improve their housing environment, we can sustainably increase labor productivity. Even depending on their rental term, we should consider the improvement of their housing environment. This problem is very important, as its solution will contribute to the adaptation of immigrants to local conditions and to prevention of conflicts. In addition, the market segmentation for immigrants exists in the Russian housing market. Their level of housing rent is very low, except ^ for their number of cohabitants. It mightily shows the multi-layered structure of this market. In order to improve immigrants housing conditions, we a-need to make a housing policy and regulation of housing conditions. In addi- i tion, we should organize private rental housing market more openly and clear- § ly through private agency. £
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