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Вестник Челябинского государственного университета. 2019. № 11 (433). Экономические науки. Вып. 67. С. 61—70.
УДК 338.45.01 DOI 10.24411/1994-2796-2019-11107
ББК 65.30-18
PROBLEMS OF CHOICE OF INDUSTRIAL POLICY PRIORITIES IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION1
O. Dyachenko
Chelyabinsk State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia Исследование выполнено за счет гранта Российского фонда фундаментальных исследовании (проект № 18-010-01035).
The article considers the strategic aspects of the implementation of the state industrial policy. The strategy of reindust realization is given as one of the forms of industrial policy implementation. The authors in the article defend the point of view of the relevance of support of old industrial industries that have shaped the image of modern regions and ensure economic growth at the present stage. The main directions of implementation of the state industrial policy hi the Ural Federal District are presented and viewed. Enhancement of technological and resource base: stimulation of investment activity hi the region; social and economic development of monotowns are the most important among them.
Keywords: state industrial policy, reindustrialization, development strategy, metallurgy, manufacturing industry, growth point, competitiveness, effectiveness ratio of raw materials usage
Introduction to the problem
The modern market economy is fundamentally different from the economy in the late '90s. The reason of changes is in the system transformation in the manufacturing method. Challenges of the L'New Economy" pointed out the need for adjustment of the domestic economic system to the global technological trends, among which special note informatization of the means of production, the growth of intellectualization of economic processes, acceleration of high-tech processes, the growing importance of investment projects in fundamental and applied scientific researches. The depth of these phenomena, first of all. is visible in industrial productions. However, it should he noted that to a certain extent, these trends insignificantly affected the domestic industry due to the different circumstances:
— Insufficiency of financial resources;
— The lack of owner's economic interest in the financing of updating of production capacities;
— Insufficient attention by the responsible state bodies for industrial development:
— International market condition.
The state industrial policy acted as the primary tool. With its help, the developed economies have taken decisions oil adaptation to global changes in national productions. In Russia, due to the predominance of liberal outlook on the prospects of economic development, the questions of the need for "state intervention in economic
'Статья издана на русском языке. [Дьяченко О.В. Проблема выбора приоритетов промышленной политики // Экономическое возрождение России. — 2017. — № 1,—С. 82-95].
processes" and the availability of "market failures" in the highest political circles were not raised to the mid-2000s. Thus, the questions of industrial policy implementation were practically not raised before the government. The current stage of development demonstrates the fallibility of the liberal approach to economic development and updates the value of attention to various professional circles to the nature, role, location, goals, objectives of industrial policy as an essential tool in the "hands of the state" on revival of the national productive forces and rise of their potential in the world's leading position in order to ensure the economic security of the country.
Currently, among Russian scientists — economists enough attention is paid to the implementation of the state industrial policy. There are many different approaches to the identification of its nature, forms, and methods of implementation in the conditions of the Russian economy. Works of such members of the Ural Department of Russian Academy of Sciences as A.I. Tatarkin [29], O.A Romanova. [25], A.G. Shelomentsev [32], S.G. Chenchevich [31], V.E. Toskunm [30], A.N. Pytkin [24], E.V. Pilipenko [21] researching the regional aspects of the implementation of industrial policy are of particular interest. The studies of A.Yu. Davankov [14], E.S. Zarubezhnov [15], O.B. Brizhak [11] are devoted to the private questions of industrial policy of the Ural region and the factors of its successful implementation. Also, the works of V.I. Barkhatov [7], S.Yu Glazyev. [12], G.B Kleyner. [16]. F.F. Rybakov [26]. O.S Sukharev. [28]. W. Popov [12]. V.N. Knyaginin. PG. Schedrovitsky [17] should be noted. It is impossible to ignore the works of the
Institute of New Industrial Development named after S.Yu. Vitte, as well as the researchers, realizing with them joint research projects: S.D. Bodrunov [8], R.S. Greenberg [13], A.V. Buzgalin [33], A.D. Nekipelov [18], D.E. Sorokm [27].
The stated above non-complete list of outstanding Russian economists allows saying that to a question of implementation of the state industrial policy from the scientific community is paid close attention today. However, the wide range of views, that is undoubtedly the positive moment, on the nature, subjects and objects, tools, forms of implementation of industrial policy, does not allow develop the consolidated opinion on the prospects of its implementation and thereby convey the tightly reasoned and well thought program of strategic and tactical measures to the economic authorities.
Problem statement. Search of objects of the state industrial policy
The debatable field very actively included the re-industrialization project of the Russian economy. In several scientific works, this project is referred to as a strategy, occasionally as a policy. A.I. Tatarkin determines industrial policy as a component of the strategy of social development. F.F. Rybakov. on the contrary, specifies that the industrial policy has strategic and tactical components. We share F.F. Rybakov's opinion. There is cumulative scientific knowledge — practices of various scientists which determine the nature of the state industrial policy, its characteristic features, types, etc. — i.e. a core, and also the scientific knowledge describing methods of its implementation, stages, tools which can be applicable in certain economic, geographical, political, social and other conditions — these are variable parameters for the formation of industrial policy implementation. "The institutional knowledge" of the state industrial policy is also separately distinguished, which is expressed in the Federal Law "On state industrial policy" as well as in various strategic planning documents, which generally represent a set of laws, rules and regulations in relation to the trajectory of development and methods of achievement of goals. So, passed in December 2014, the Federal Law "On industrial policy in the Russian Federation" defines industrial policy as "a complex of legal, economic, organizational and other measures aimed at the development of the Russian Federation's industrial potential, ensuring the production of competitive industrial products" [3]. A set of the critical positions considered in the law (the interested subjects; tasks, purposes and principles; a role of state
bodies power at various levels, etc.) regulate the general rules of the game between the state and subjects which primary economic practice is connected with industrial production or reproduction of industrial potential of an industry (group of companies), the principles of their interaction.
The project "«industrialization" as a document of strategic planning does not exist. Nevertheless, now, the matter is actively worked up by various scientists; moreover, various business communities make attempts to institutionalize separate results of scientific researches in the form of recommendations, strategy. The analysis of publications on this subject allows claiming that there was a theoretical core in a relation of the "de-industrial" phenomena in the domestic economy, on the contrary, questions about the nature of re-industrialization and a way of its implementation cause a controversy and discussions. For example, in respect of the object of re-industrial transformations did not appear a clear picture for the supporters of this theory. There are various objects of re-industrial transformations:
1) NBICS — technologies. The state shall provide conditions for the reproduction of technologies of 5-6 paradigms.
2) Information and Communications Technology (ICT) and machine-tool construction.
3) Mechanical engineering.
4) Old industrial production (metallurgy, chemical production, power industry) [9].
Support of these industries is considered as points of growth of all economic system. For their revival and cultivation, it is necessary to solve the problems which hinder the quantitative and qualitative growth in these industries. The supporters of the need for re-industrial transformations allocate a triad of problems: "production — science — education". Prof. A. Buzgalin and A. Kolganov also add "culture" and "education" to the problems mentioned above [33]. Thus, we see that for a revival of the industry and production of products, competitive in the global market, it is necessary to raise within the strategy of reindustrializa-tion the questions which are beyond industrial policy and competence of the bodies responsible for its implementation. We adhere to the point of view where it is worked out questions of support of old industrial enterprises and industries. In our opinion, those entities and industries which provide sustainable development of both regional sub economies and all economic system, in general, shall get to a sphere of influence of the state industrial policy first of all. It was more than once noted that domestic industrial potential is con-
centrated in sector 3-4 of techno-economic paradigm that to some extent, bears risks of economic development (in case of excessive concentration of attention only on this sphere).
Nevertheless, it doesn't mean that those industries which provided the economic growth and development of economy in the middle of the 20th century (power industry, petrochemistry, metallurgy and) will not be able to be reproduced on the 5-th or 6-th tech-no-economic paradigm. The main explanation which suggested an idea of the need of withdrawal of a strategic development from technologies of an industrial age. that even in case of innovative updating of means of production, these industries will never give a high value added, in comparison, for example, with information sector of the economy. Partly such situation takes place. However, in old industrial areas there is another important strategic loading — provision of employment. No high-tech industry today is able to provide similar employment in regions as at the metallurgical, petrochemical, energy entities. The domestic economic policy of Russia focuses the attention on the creation of competitive conditions, within it the state
industrial policy aims to create competitive high-tech growth points. These growth points will be concentrated first of all at representatives of the largest national manufacturing industries.
It can be witnessed by the emphasis made by the experts of Ministry of Industry and Trade in the state program "Development of the industry and increase in its competitiveness for the period till 2020" approved the Government of the Russian Federation on the importance of various industries of economy. In the figure below is displayed industrial policy matrix, grouped according to two criteria: strategic importance and contribution to the economic growth of various industries (Fig. 1).
It is clear from the matrix that in the implementation of industrial policy by the state, metallurgical production has an essential role, because it makes a significant contribution to the socio-economic development, economic growth, therefore, in the economic security of the country. This matrix reflects the current attitude and vision of the role in the strategic development of various sectors of the national economy by the industry state machinery (Ministry
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INSIGNIFICANT MODERATE SIGNIFICANCE
STRATEGIC SIGNIFICANCE
HIGH SIGNIFICANCE
Fig. 1. Matrix of the state industrial policy
of Industry and Trade). Today the heated discussions concerning the need for restructuring of the Russian economy take place in scientific and political community. The emphasis is put mainly on the fact that there is a high level of specialization in raw materials in the Russian economy, and therefore, the revision of the matrix given above is rather high [5]. However. I would like to cite A.D. Nikipelov's speech on Abalkin s readings in December 2013: "Today, the reasoning about the so-called "resource curse" became fashionable, trying to justify almost all our economic troubles with their help... How can the economy function without raw materials and energy? And does the economic system in which production of a product, important for all, becomes the basis for the huge problems have the right to existence? ... The oil production, oil refining uses the latest technology, these are high-tech activities. The endless moaning about the "fuel and raw needle", can lead nowhere but dead-lock" [13]. In the article "We Need A New Economy" YV. Putin noted: ".. .Are we ready to risk the economy for the sake of purity of the economic theory?" [23]. No, aren't ready. Sanctions policy against Russia, the international political contradictions, wars point to the idea that there is a world struggle for separation of the markets and access to natural resources. Therefore, all the rhetoric in relation to the prospects of "the post-industrial myth" as opposed to strategic irrelevance of the material basis, formed in the period of existence in our country of the planned economic system, is empty and dangerous. Environmentally dirty, harmful, generating a lot of contradictions in the economic development the
metallurgical, petrochemical production — are the most important factors of economic, social and political security of Russia at the present stage of history. Limits of development and growth of these sectors aren't reached by us, therefore, a scope for technological upgrading, intellectualization growth of production processes, building global production chains — are the forthcoming challenges.
Implementation of the state industrial policy in the region with metallurgical specialization
The program of upgrade of metallurgy is considered as a separate element in the above mentioned document. The following directions are allocated as obligatory actions of the program implementation and specified in the following Tab. 1.
The program implementation of metallurgical production competitiveness considers availability of subsidies. Target nature of subsidies is provided in the following form: Fig. 2.
On condition of the solution of a number of industry problems, this production sphere is capable, in the long term till 2030. to act as a point of economic growth of the territorial subject of the federation, to provide with high-technology workplaces local municipalities, to act as one of pillars of financial stability of the region, and in general to observe the mode of an economic safety both regional economy, and the country in general [19].
The main directions of the state industrial policy in the field of metallurgical production can be:
1. Enhancement of technological and development of resource base of metallurgical production.
Instruments of customs tariff regulation and protection of the domestic market:
- there are 5 measures (anti-dumping and special protective duties);
- operates the Common customs tariff of the Customs union
- Provision of the state guarantees on loans for implementation of investment projects;
- Zero VAT on imported technological equipment that has no analogs in Russia;
- Zero import duties on technological equipment, winch has no analogs in Russia;
- Subsidising of interest rates on loans for the technical re-equipment of enterprises of special metallurgy;
- Participation of Bank for Development and Foreign Economic Affairs in financing of priority investment projects;
- Use of the Investment fund within mechanisms of public-private partnership for implementation of an infrastructure part of investment projects.
Equalization of conditions of an entrance on the mar ket of steel products in the different countries (review of restrictive measures, holding bilateral and multilateral negotiations at the level of the governments and heads of states, support of participants of exhibition and fan' actions).
Fig. 2. Subsidies for metallurgical industry
Table 1
Main support actions for competitiveness of metallurgy in Russia
Main actions Purpose Main directions of implementation Expected result Target indicators and indexes
Stimulation of quality improvement and competitiveness of steel products Ensuring demand for steel Within the implementation of the main event it provides a number of state support measures aimed at the stimulation of innovative activity of the entities, equipment with modern highly effective equipment of the new and modernized productions, cost reduction of production and equipment downtimes Improvement of quality and competitiveness of steel products made of ferrous and non-ferrous metals. The increase in export volumes. The growth of steel deliveries to the domestic market with a simultaneous increase in the share of domestic steel products in the domestic steel consumption. Growth in the share of products with high added value.
Stimulation of technical modernization and upgrade of the entities of metallurgical complex products in the necessary nomenclature, quality and supply rates to the metal consuming industries on the internal and external markets by increase in competitive advantages of the Russian products due to the accelerated innovative updating of an industry, increase in an ecological safety and decrease in resource intensity. Within the implementation of the main event it is provided the subsidy to the Russian entities of special metallurgy for partial reimbursement of expenses on payment of interest on loans obtained in the Russian credit organizations and in state corporation «Bank for Development and Foreign Economic Affairs (Vnesheconom-bank)» in 2008 — 2011 for technical retooling Technical re-equipment of an industry on the basis of the carried-out upgrade. Reducing wear and tear on the basic production assets. Improvement of quality and competitiveness of production against the background of increasing in labour productivity. Reduction of emissions into the atmosphere for 24% by 2020, discharges of polluted wastewater — 50%. Industrial production index to the previous year; Index of industrial production to 2011; labor productivity index to the previous year; index of physical volume of investments in fixed-capital assets to the previous year;
Stimulation of resource-and energy saving in the industry A number of the state support measures directed on stimulation of the entities to implementation of new power- and resource-efficient technologies, including measures of customs tariff regulation is provided within the implementation of the main event Decrease in resource-and energy saving in metallurgy. Decrease in power consumption of metallurgical repartition by 2020 for 20-22%, mining repartition — for 18-20%, Increase in a share of steel smelting in electric furnaces up to 39% ofthe total amount of smelting by 2020 in case of complete closing of the open-hearth production.
One of the central problems at the modern metallurgical entity, in addition to production of high-quality and competitive product on the market, is decrease in losses of raw materials in the course of its processing. "The effectiveness ratio of use of raw materials" is applied to indicate the efficiency of processing of raw materials. Its high rate depends at least on 4 factors:
— Content in raw materials of the main mineral (in turn depends on the chemical composition, depth, mining methods, enrichment, preparation for processing):
— The efficiency of applied technologies (productivity of equipment);
— Compliance with the given technological mode by application of high-tech means of measurement of the process conditions (computer software);
— The efficiency of technological processes, trapping industrial emissions, waste water treatment, organized storage of waste generated during the processing of raw materials and technology capable of reproduction of waste in a repeated production cycle [7].
During the strategy implementation this indicator can act as one of reference points of modernization efforts, and also criterion of efficiency of the taken measures. Nevertheless, in case of its adequate calculation at the present stage there can be a number of problems.
Considering metallurgical industry in the Ural Federal District, we will note the following aspects. The district share in the total production of metallurgical products of the country exceeds 40%. Industrial enterprises of Chelyabinsk and the Sverdlovsk region provide 40% of the country's needs for steel and rolled ferrous metal products, and also about 45% of production of steel pipes [2]. The Ural Federal District is the second region in the country on reserves of iron ores — 14,8% of balance reserves (the CFD — 60% of balance reserves). At the same time, there is uneven-ness in reserves on the territories of the Ural Federal District: 90% of reserves are located in 25 deposits of the Sverdlovsk Region and 10% in 24 deposits of Chelyabinsk region. Moreover, the problem is aggravated with the fact that in the last decade the anticipatory tendency of clearing off the explored reserves of raw materials over the growth rates of balance reserves is observed. The insufficient iron ore base of ferrous metallurgy of the Urals is characterized by lack of sufficient ore base on bauxites, tin, tungsten, rare-earth raw materials. Metallurgical production in the Ural Federal District is provided with own iron ore raw materials for 50-60%. About 20 million tons of raw materials are annually imported from the Central
Russia (Mikhaylovsky, Lebedinsky iron ore mining processing plants, Karelia (Kostomuksha mining and ore processing plant). Kazakhstan (Sokolovsk-Sarbaisk Mining and Processing Plant). Due to the constant increase in tariffs for railway transportation, increasing the risk of the loss of cost competitiveness of the Ural manufacturers in both domestic and foreign markets.
Thus, the task of renovation of obsolete production capacities of processing industry is only part of a difficult way on the implementation of the growth strategy of competitiveness of metallurgical production in Russia. Various metallurgical regions in different degree are provided with deposits of natural resources. Thus, in order to avoid strategic mistakes, regarding the subjects of financial, information, infrastructure support, audit of ore inventories and their high-quality and consumer properties in the territories is necessary.
2. Forming of conditions and stimulation of investment activity both directly in the metal industry and in the steel-consuming industries of the economy.
Metallurgical industry acts as the resource supplier for a number of the leading industries of economy: mechanical engineering, energy, and construction, defense industry complex, chemical industry, light industry, etc. The pipe rolling acts as the most metal consuming industry in Russia. Thereby, success of metallurgy directly depends on achievements in the listed industries — on the investment climate.
3. Problems of monotowns which social and economic development closely depends on progress of the city-forming metallurgical entities.
The economy of the most monotowns of South and Central Ural specializes in production and processing of ferrous and non-ferrous metals. In this regard, the stable social and economic situation in municipalities is closely connected with sustainable development of the city-forming entities. In 2014 the Government of the Russian Federation approved the list of the mono-towns distributed on the 3rd groups. The graduated list of the monotowns of the Ural Federal District is provided in the Tab. 2.
From 2014 to 2015 the following changes as a part of the above-stated list of monotowns have been noted as a result of annual monitoring of monotowns.
The positive trends include: in Sverdlovsk region from the 1st into the 2nd categoiy turned Kamensk-Uralsky, Serov and Verkhnyaya Salda from the 2nd into the 3rd categoiy: in Chelyabinsk region from 2nd into the 3rd category turned Ozyorsk .
The negative trends include: in the Sverdlovsk region from the 3rd to the 2nd category went Verkhnyaya
Table 2
The list of the monotowns of the Ural Federal District distributed "depending on extent of deterioration in their social and economic situation" according to the monitoring results for 2015
Territorial subject of the Russian Federation 1 category of inouotowns with the most difficult economic aud social situation (including iu interrelation with problems of functioniug of the city-formiug orgauizations 2 category of monotowus w ith risks of deterioration iu economic aud social situation 3 category of monotowus with stable social aud ecouomic situation
Sverdlovsk region Krasnoturymsk. Volchansk, Karpinsk. Severouralsk, Pervouralsk Krasnouralsk, Kachkanar. Top Tnra, Verkhnyaya Pyslima. Kamensk-Uralsky, Asbest Polevskoy, Serov, Nizhny Tagil. Revda. Verkhnyaya Salda. Malyslieva
Chelyabinsk region Ust-Katav. Nyazepetrovsk, Verkhny Ufalya. Karabash. Aslia. Minyar, Bakal Sim. Satka. Zlatoust. Miass. Chebarkul Magnitogorsk. Ozyorsk. Tryokhgomy. Snezliinsk
Kurgan region Petukhovo. Dalmatovo, Kataysk Vargashy
Source: [4]
Pyshma and Asbest; in the Chelyabinsk region from the 2nd to the 1st category dropped Minyar and Bakal.
The problem of monotowns isn't new. The institutes existing in the period of planned economy, these problems were timely solved, to a certain extent of efficiency. Since the rules of the market economy is fundamentally different from the planned economy: first of all relevance of the state intervention in a competitive environment is denied, and rules of survival also differ, i.e. external support (conceptually) isn't meant. The entrepreneurial private initiative as practice shows, couldn't cope with challenges of new economic regime. Certainly, a part of the privatized entities reproduced and increased its production potential: however, the vast majority of the city-forming entities in market conditions couldn't provide its economic activity with updated production facilities, didn't offer competitive products and didn't find its market niche. The monotowns of the Ural Federal District (Chelyabinsk and Sverdlovsk Region) are mainly provided by the extracting and processing metallurgical industry. For the reason that this sphere of the industry is one of the most capital-intensive, power-intensive, labor-intensive and resource-intensive and the competitiveness of the Russian domestic manufacturers in the world market shall be based on these advantages. The liberal model of the Russian economy over the last 25 years couldn't create favorable conditions in order that the basis of industrial production which passed into a private property was reproduced on an innovative basis, having provided competitiveness of the city-forming entities in above-mentioned parameters. Thereby, today came to the conclusion that the state is forced to finance a private property, in order to avoid the crisis at the regional level. The economic problems arising at the city-forming entities inevita-
bly involve a complex of problems: unemployment, social tension, migration, and increase in crime. All this feeds public distrust to the government authorities, degradation of the institutional environment, the loss of investment attractiveness, etc.
For an effective solution of a problem of mono-towns it is necessary to strictly identify their source: city-forming entity or underdeveloped municipal economic environment. Depending on it there will be more effective use of various instruments of the state intervention on behalf of Ministry of Industry and Trade, the Ministry of Economic Development.
Conclusion
In our opinion, the state should direct a vector of efforts to the industrial backlog which was formed in the 20th century — during the period of both planned, and market economies. It is about the industries which ensure today the safety of municipality, the region and country in general. Certainly, high-tech industries are the future: nevertheless, there are not many examples when in the region the degrading industrial infrastructure is combined with progressive development of high-tech environment. "Or," in this case is inappropriate. The development of two spheres is interconnected and interdependent, as the demand for innovative products first of all provides a large industrial capital, the defense industry complex. Moreover, the global trends of recent decades indicate that there are processes of convergence between high-tech industries, creating a product with the high level of value added and industrial enterprises having resources and production capacities, but taking a lower value added.
The industrial economy based on the 3-4-th technological mode develops by its own rules and laws and. on the contrary, innovative, basing its potential on
technologies of higher level -on its own. Nevertheless, theoretical models are much more simply arranged, than the real economy which is essentially multi-structural or mixed economy. Approaches of the state regulation to high-tech industries and old industrial ones are often contradictory, that is why the problem of adequate. timely, pointed state support of those who most of all need is particularly acute. Due to various socio-economic developments of regions of Russia, one territory need stronger state influence, others need the most liberal economic environment. For this reason, efficiency of the state industrial policy not in small degree is determined by results of socio-economic, technological, political monitoring and auditing of industrial regions. On the correctly chosen, timely im-plementable, transparently funded type of industrial policy of the region will depend its rate of economic growth.
Considering the Ural Federal District it is possible to conclude that its economy is based on two industries:
— The extractive and processing metallurgical industry (Sverdlovsk and Chelyabinsk Regions);
— Extraction and processing of oil and gas (Tyumen Region).
Industrial infrastructure, the level of employment in the city-forming enterprises, the environmental situation indicates that the economic system is based on the
4-th technological mode. The total level of innovative activity of industrial enterprises in the Ural Federal District for 2014 was 8.6%.This small percentage of organizations implementing technological innovation — is a small backlog of the 5th technological mode, i.e. inicroenvironment which allows not to deny a mixed economy phenomenon. A picture across the Ural Federal District concerning a share of the industrial organizations performing technological innovations in total number of the organizations is following: Tab. 3.
Legislator, adopting normative legal acts, regulations, federal laws, in the conditions of the market system implies generality of distribution of their action. The Federal Law "On the state industrial policy" establishes the general rules of the game for all participants involved in the industrial production of goods. Regions, by virtue of their economic characteristics, implement this Federal Law in the framework established by it but can use various tools. From Table 3 we see that in 2016, 91.2% of the industrial enterprises of the Ural Federal District were not engaged in the implementation of technological innovations. Respectively, it is possible to assume that for this group of economic entities forming by the state of the same "greenhouse" conditions as for the innovative companies will be not only inappropriate, but, perhaps, harmful.
Table 3
Share of organizations implementing technological innovation in the total number of organizations (%)
Region 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Russian Federation 9.6 9.9 9,7 9,7 9,5 9,2
Ural Federal District 10.6 10.3 9,2 8.6 8.8 8.8
Kurgan Region 13.9 11,5 9,1 8.9 10.0 7,2
Sverdlovsk Region 12,0 12.4 11.1 9.5 9,2 10.8
Tyumen Region 8.6 7,7 7,5 7,4 7,2 7,7
Klianty-Mansiisk Autonomous district 9.0 7,1 7,2 4.9 5.0 6.0
Yamal-Nenets Autonomous District 7,4 8,2 6.2 11.2 7,7 9.2
Chelyabinsk Region 10.9 11.0 9.2 9.2 10.3 8.4
[Source: 34]
About the author
Dyachenko Oleg Vyaclieslavovicli — PliD in Economics, Associate Professor. Department of Economics of Industries and Markets, Chelyabinsk State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia, dyachenko@csu.ru
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