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12PREDICATES IN MEDICINAL PLANTS' NAMES
Dr. Sc. Professor Panasenko Nataliya Slovakia, Trnava, University of SS Cyril and Methodius in Trnava
Abstract. The onomasiological model of compound, derivative words and word combinations includes onomasiological basis, onomasiological feature and predicate, which connects them. The author presents results of onomasiological analysis of medicinal plants' names in Romance (French and Latin), Germanic (German, Dutch, English) and Slavic languages (Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Czech, and Slovak), focusing mainly on types of predicate. The most frequently registered types of predicate in this lexico-semantic group are predicate of comparison, of purpose, compositional and temporal as well is predicates "ISA " and "HASA".
Keywords: onomasiological model, onomasiological basis, feature, predicate, medicinal plant's name.
1 Introduction
Medicinal plants' (MP') names or phytonyms form a special lexico-semantic group. Phytonymic lexicon can be analyzed from different points of view. I have made word building, onomasiological and cognitive analysis of MP' names in ten languages. Now I want to present some results of onomasiological analysis and to show how important information about the plant encoded in its name is.
One of popular trends of modern linguistics is onomasiology, though it has old roots. Numerous onomasiological studies highlight the problem of designation. The onomasiological analysis reveals the act of the designation as the speech cogitative act, during which the designated is brought under a certain category. According to O.V. Rayevskaya, onomasiological approach to the process of the designation allows to consider the words "as the result of human cognitive activity establishing connections between various substances in the surrounding world and expressing this communication in the name created by it" (Раевская 1981: 82).
Czech scholar M. Dokulil (1962) was the first one to have introduced the notion of the onomasiological model, which consisted of the onomasiological basis and the onomasiological feature. Later on, this theory was further developed by a Russian scholar Yelena Kubriakova (1978; 1990), her disciples (Панасенко 2010; Panasenko 2012; Полюжин 1997) and her numerous followers (Кислухина 2013; 2014; Курушкина 2010; 2012; Селиванова 2000; Теркулов 2008; Lancaric 2012). In recent works, this notion is applied while reconstructing onomasiological models or the conceptual structures employed in designation.
2 Basics of the onomasiological analysis
The necessity of the onomasiological analysis is defined by the fact that this kind of analysis being a logical development of the structural-semantic analysis, prepares the cognitive analysis of the lexicon. There are strong reasons to consider that the onomasiological analysis allows to reveal conceptual mechanisms of formation of this or that name of a plant and to specify the principles of their motivation.
As onomasiological studies of the end of the 70s-80s of the previous century show, this very type of the analysis was the ultimate goal of the derivative (secondary) lexicon analysis, and its results were used for the general description of the studied group of words features and, above all, concrete ways of its modelling. Cognitive linguistics revealed, however, opportunity and deeper generalizations of this material by the detailed analysis of the obtained data from the cognitive point of view, i.e., on their role in processes of the world cognition. In this sense the onomasiological analysis, like the word-formation one, was a certain stage in the formal and semantic consideration of the studied lexicon layer, preceding the stage of cognitive judgment of this lexicon.
Carrying out the onomasiological analysis, we must bear in our minds that it is the analysis of the linguistic activity form that represents the technique, which is very well worked-out on the material of the word-formation analysis. In the scope of the onomasiology the accent has shifted from the names of subjects to the research of the designation processes in general.
As a rule, structural-semantic analysis precedes the onomasiological one, which in our
research allowed to establish the main ways of the MPs' designation and their distribution in the languages under consideration. Further, derivatives and compound words, complex-compounds and word combinations have been analysed. The onomasiological analysis of the phytonym's structure allows to reveal designative potential of derivatives and compound words, as well as other models and to establish semantic and onomasiological features of these nominative units.
My research is based on the tertiary model of a derivative and compound word developed by Kubriakova (1978) that includes onomasiological basis, onomasiological feature and onomasiological predicate, which further on will be simply called a basis, a feature and a predicate.
3 Literature review
Onomasiological aspect of Romance, Germanic and Slavic lexicon has many a time been the object of linguistic research. I would have singled out studies of general character, highlighting methods and foundations of onomasiological analysis (Dokulil 1962; Евтушевский 1985; Ky6pHKOBa 1978; 1986; 1994); Курушкша 2012; Панасенко 2010; Раевская 1981; Теркулов 2008) and studies of various thematic groups: animals' age (Бойко 1983), scientific and technical terminology (Дроздова 1989); toponyms (Хвесько 2007); terminology system of agriculture and soil microbiology (Кислухина 2013, 2014); culinary terms (Курушкша 2010); MPs' names (Панасенко 2011; Panasenko 2012); political science terms (Трибунская 1980), etc. Despite a number of the researches of lexicon from the onomasiological and cognitive positions phytonyms are studied, however, insufficiently so far.
All these mentioned above investigations resulted in some classification principles of the onomasiological structure of the derivatives and the system of basis and feature singling out. However, in the analysis of complex-compound words and word combinations consisting of three and more elements, including a derivative or a compound word as one of its elements there arise certain difficulties on allocation of the basis and the feature. Detailed onomasiological analysis see in Панасенко 2010.
4 Predicates in phytonymic lexicon
The linking predicate as an obligatory element of the tertiary model indicates the type of the semantic relations between the basis and the feature in onomasiological structure. According to Yu.I. Yevtushevsky, "the semantic relations between the basis and the feature are expressed through an explicit onomasiological link or by the restoration of the implicitly presented predicate" (Евтушевский 1985: 158).
Now I will specify predicates, which can be found in phytonyms. Specific feature of the MPs' designation are hidden predicates which "are pulled out" by the basis and feature (Кубрякова 1990: 20). To define the meaning of the predicate and the feature attributed by it correctly, I had to attract background knowledge from other areas. E.g., in Russian common name of the Dandelion (Taraxacum officinalis Wigg.) Зубник /a tooth + suff./ a predicate of comparison (looks like smth.) attributes to the basis-suffix the feature of the form, whereas the Ukrainian common names of the Black henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L.) Зуб1вник, Зубник, Зубовик /a tooth + suff./ indicate not the plant's form, but its properties to soothe toothache by the enveloping the patient with plant smoke or by smoking a pipe filled by the herb. Another Ukrainian common name of this poisonous plant Люльник /pipe + suff./ testifies to the correct interpretation of this MP's name. Thus, the predicate of the purpose attributes to basis-suffix the feature of functional target.
The examples from my language material obviously demonstrate the interrelation between the basis meaning and predicate type: if the basis describes substance, then the predicate will be "consists of", if it denotes material, then the predicate is "made of". It is also possible to speak about the temporal predicate (blossoming time), a predicate of comparison (similarity to a known plant or an object) and predicate of functional target consequent from the feature, etc., which will be considered below.
So far as we present results of the onomasiological analysis of MPs' names let us take into account types of word-formation models and try to reveal interrelation between typical predicates and ways of the MPs' designation. This link is not so obvious, as, say, in the classification of basis, in which typical basis of the derivative word is the suffix of a noun and in the word unit designations -the name of a plant. Nevertheless, this link exists. The most frequent predicates are "ISA" and "HASA", which we interpret as "something is something" and "something has something", e.g.: French Grand-eclaire - Greater celandine (Chelidonium majus L.) - smth., a plant, is large; English lit. Yellow gentian (Gentiana lutea L.) - smth., a plant, is yellow; Polish Kwadratky /square + suffix/ -European spindle-tree (Euonymus europaea L.) - smth., a plant's part (berries), represented by a
formal basis - suff. -k - is square; Dutch Goudsbloem /golden flower/, Oranjebloem /orange flower/ -Pot marigold (Calendula officinalis L.) - smth., a plant's part (flower), is golden/orange; Groothoefblad - Greater burdock (Arctium lappa L.) - smth. is large in size. An example of "HASA": English lit. Small-seeded lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) - smth., a plant, has small seeds. Let us consider these and other types of predicates in details.
4.1 Predicates in derivatives
In those derivative words where the basis is the suffix, it is possible to allocate the greatest number of predicates. Some examples with suffixes allow us to attribute something to the class of plants with the predicate "ISA": Polish Zoltnik - Chelidonium majus L. - smth. is yellow. Czech phytonym Hlavacek - Pheasant's eye (Adonis vernalis L.) requires special explanation. Hlavac means a person or a creature having a large head (compare Russian носач - a person or an animal with a big nose). At the same time in this phytonym we have a diminutive suffix. In that case, MP's name can be interpreted as follows: a small (low) plant having a large glome. The predicate in this tertiary model is "HASA".
Now I would like to present less frequent but more interesting cases of other predicates, most of which can be found in Slavic languages where derivatives in our examples prevail: predicate "carries out the action" - Russian Забируха /to take away + suff./ - Shepherd's-purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.), Грызник /to nibble + suff./ - Вербейник монетчатый; Ukrainian Зчисток /to brush off + suff./ - Greater celandine (Chelidonium majus L.); Slovak Zahojnik /to cicatrize + suff./ - Common yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.); predicate "makes an action over the object" - Russian Ногтоедник /smth. that "eats" the nail/ - Herb Paris (Paris quadrifolia L.); predicate "possesses some property" - Russian Причепа /smth. that can stick/ - Череда трехраздельная, Пыщалка /contorted Пищалка, smth. that can squeek/ - Sweet flag (Acorus calamus L.) - a horn can be made from the hollow, Порезник /to cut + suff./, Растиральник /to massage, to rub + suff./ - Common yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.), Бесиво, Бешеница /mad + suff./
- Белена черная; Бессмертник /immortal + suff./ - Dwarf everlasting (Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench.), Czech Krvavnik /blood + suff./ - Greater celandine (Chelidonium majus L.) - the plant has red juice; predicate "has quantity of objects": Ukrainian Тисяченець /one thousand + suff./ -Common yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.) - smth., a plant, has one thousand of smth., plant's structure is meant; Czech Trojnik /three + suff./ - Wild pansy (Viola tricolour L.) - indication that the flower has three colours; predicate of functional target: Russian Прозорник /transparent, clear + suff., MP treats eyes disease/ - Чистотел большой; Ukrainian Бородавник /wart + suff., MP takes out warts/ - Greater celandine (Chelidonium majus L.); Polish Kupalnik /to bathe + suff., MP is used to bathe a baby/ - Mountain arnica (Arnica montana L.); predicate of comparison (looks like smth.): Russian Булавочник /pin + suff./ - Meadow cranesbill (Geranium pratense R. Knuth); Ukrainian Св1чник /candle + suff./ - Great yellow gentian (Gentiana lutea L.); Polish Pienieznik, Pieniazek /coin + suff./ - Creeping Jenny (Lysimachia nummularia L.); temporal predicate (time of blossoming): Ukrainian Майка /May + suff./ - Dandelion (Taraxacum officinalis Wigg.); Czech Majicek /May + dimin. suffix, masc./ - Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale Wigg.).
4.2 Predicates in compounds
In compound words the number of predicates, in comparison with derivatives, is limited. I have managed to reveal the following predicates: predicate "HASA": English Monkhood (Aconitum napellus L.) - someone has smth. - metaphoric designation of flower's unusual form; predicate of comparison (looks like smth.) - German Wetterhahn /cock's comb ^ weathercock / - Woodsorrel (Oxalis acetosella L.); Dutch Egelkop /head of a hedgehog/ - Eastern purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench.); predicate "possesses some property": German Schlafkraut /somniferous herb/ - Black henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L.), Kun(d)igundenkraut /kundigunden - to cancel, break off/ - Three-lobe Beggarticks (Bidens tripartita L.) - MP is used in skin diseases treatment; English Buck-weed - Creeping Jenny (Lysimachia nummularia L.) - MP has the property of alkali, Stick-tights
- Three-lobe Beggarticks (Bidens tripartita L.); Russian Разрыв-трава /rupture + herb/ - Touch-me-not (Impatiens noli-tangere L.); predicate "carries out the action": German Schalkraut /schalen - to peal/, Schindkraut /schinden - to skin, to torture smb./ - Greater celandine (Chelidonium majus L.); Verfangkraut /verfangen - to carry out the action + herb/ - Mountain arnica (Arnica montana L.).
4.3 Predicates in complex-compound words
The number of the complex-compound words in our language material is limited, and the
basis in them is represented by the suffix. In such word-formation models I have found out only a few types of predicates: predicate "HASA" - Ukrainian Чотирилистник /four leaves + suff./ - Herb Paris (Paris quadrifolia L.); Slovak Stolistnik /one hundred + leaf + suff./, Tisicilistnik /one thousand + leaf + suff./ - Common yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.) - smth., a plant, has one hundred /thousand of smth., plant's structure is meant; predicate of comparison (looks like smth.): Polish Zfymniszek /angry monk + diminut. suff/ - Aconite monkshood (Aconitum napellus L.) - the plant has a specific form of the flower, which looks like a catholic monk's hood; predicate "makes an action over the object" - Russian Носочистка /smth. that cleanses the nose/, Рудометка /smth. that marks the location of the ore/, Серпорезник /smth. that cuts the skin like a sickle/ - Common yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.); temporal predicate (duration of blossoming): Russian Одномесячник /one month + suffix/ -Pheasant's eye (Adonis vernalis L.).
4.4 Predicates in word combinations
In word combinations many predicates belong to the most popular types - "ISA" and "HASA", let us give some examples: predicate "ISA" Latin Chelidonium majus (L.) - Greater celandine - smth., a plant, is large; French Ellebore noir - Baneberry (Actaea spicata L.) - smth., a plant, is black; Russian lit. Девясил шероховатый - Hairy elecampane (Inula hirta L.) - smth., a plant, is asperous; Polish lit. Drok gladki - Dyer's broom (Genista tinctoria L.) - smth., a plant, is smooth; predicate "HASA" Latin Capsella bursa pastoris (L.) Medik.) - Common shepherd's purse -a shepard has a bag - metaphoric designation of plant's seeds; French Bonnet de carré /priest's hat/ -European spindle-tree (Euonymus europaea L.) - someone, a priest, has a hat - metaphoric designation of the specific form of plant's berries; Slovak Sliez okruhlolisty /a plant has round leaves/ -Common mallow (Malva sylvestris L.); English Lady's foxglove - Common mullein (Verbascum thapsus L.) - someone, a lady, has foxgloves. The last example needs interpretation: the plant's name reveals the structure of the surface of a leaf sheet - softness and velvet. The explanation comes from the following generally known facts: the English lady belongs to the nobility; she has gentle fingers, on which she can put on gloves from the skin only of the best quality; hunting for foxes in which ladies take part is also a characteristic feature of the English culture.
The variety of the predicate "HASA" is the predicate "HAS a quantity of smth.": Latin Achillea millefolium (L.) - Common yarrow - smth., a plant, has a thousand leaves, Paris quadrifolia (L.) - a plant that has four leaves; German lit. Vielblattrige Einbeere /a multifoliate plant with one berry/ - Herb Paris (Paris quadrifolia L.); Russian lit. Вороний глаз четырехлистный /crow's eye with four leaves/, Одноягодник четырехлистный /a plant, which has one berry and four leaves/ -Herb Paris (Paris quadrifolia L.), Трава трицветная /herb with three colours/ - Wild pansy (Viola tricolour L.), Трилистник кислый /a plant which has three leaves and is sour/ - Woodsorrel (Oxalis acetosella L.). We may also single out the predicate "possesses some property": French Cerise empoisonnée - Belladonna (Atropa Belladonna L.) - smth., a plant, is poisonous; English Sticking Roger - Black henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L.), Сонная трава /herb that evokes sleeping state/ -Belladonna (Atropa belladonna L.); temporal predicate (time of blossoming): French Colchique d'automne - Common autumn crocus (Colchicum automnale L.); predicate of comparison (looks like smth.): Dutch Rode zonnenhoed /red sun umbrella/ - Eastern purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench.), Glazen muiltje - (crystal shoes + dim. suff.) - Heartsease (Viola tricolour L.).
5 Discussion and conclusions. The problem of designation has been considered in numerous onomasiological studies. A substantial contribution to the solution of this problem was made by A.A. Potebnya (1913) who elaborated the notion of "the inner form of a word", or the initial word (with its form and content), from which a new word is derived. In recent works, this notion is applied while reconstructing onomasiological models or the conceptual structures employed in designation. The three elements of such models are the onomasiological basis (the concept represented in the final lexical and grammatical word-meaning), the onomasiological feature (the concept, which characterizes the basis and is manifested by "the inner form of a word"), and the predicate (the concept, which links the feature to the basis).
In the majority of my examples, most frequent predicates are the following ones: "ISA" and "HASA" together with "possesses some property", "carries out the action", "has a quantity of smth." (objects, features), compositional, comparative, causative, and temporal. Types of predicates have a certain relationship with the type of word building model and the basis type, e.g.: basis - substance (blood, salt) ^ predicate - compositional (consists of) ^ Russian (word combination) Заячья соль
/hare's salt/ - Woodsorrel (Oxalis acetosella L.); formal basis - suffix ^ predicate - comparative (looks like smth.) ^ Russian (derivative) Сабельник /sabre + suff./ - Sweet flag (Acorus calamus L.); Slovak (word combination) Ciganske gombiki /gipsy buttons/ - Greater burdock (Arctium lappa L.); Czech (word combination) lit. Zebracka kabelka /beggar's bag/ - Shepherd's-purse (Capsella bursapastoris (L.) Medik.); basis MP's used part ^ predicate - causative (the plant is used for the definite purpose because of its properties ^ Ukrainian (word combination) Лихоманкова трава /the herb is used to treat cold/ - Hedge hyssop (Gratiola officinalis L.).
My analysis of predicates shows that in MPs' names their variety is very limited. We can select implicit but easily recovered predicates. In derivatives and complex-compound words with the formal basis represented by suffix, we come across comparative predicates. In word combinations with lexical basis denoting the plant the most typical predicates are "ISA" and "HASA".
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METAPHOR IN CREATING FEMALE IMAGES (BASED ON AMERICAN SONG FOLKLORE)
PhD student Stashko Halyna Ukraine, Kiev National Linguistic University
Abstract. The article describes the use of metaphor in creating female images in American folk songs. The purpose of the author is to investigate how metaphor intensifies female image, which function in the text. Considering the fact that American folk songs are rich in stylistic devices, metaphor proves to be one of the best to evoke feelings and convey emotions in connection to the relevant image. It also appears to be a powerful interpretation means forming the background of the female image. The research results demonstrate that specific negative historical background can stimulate appearance of new metaphors especially in times of political crisis.
Keywords: metaphor, stylistic device, female image, song folklore, American culture.
1 Introduction.
Many researchers have paid considerable attention to metaphor issues, though there still are new horizons to challenge and bring new understanding of the linguo-cultural synergy. The topic in question has been of an increasingly high interest with Max Black (1955), Gilles Fauconnier (2008), Mark Johnson (1980; 1981), Zoltan Kovecses (2010), George Lakoff (1980; 1989; 2008), Ivor A. Richards (1936), John R. Searle (1979), Mark B. Turner (1987; 1989; 2008) and many other distinguished scientists throughout decades. Being an integral part of any language metaphor remains its basic element creating new ways to image perception. This is not surprising, since bright images are necessarily built with stylistic means and figures of speech, which emphasise, impact, enrich or hide certain features of theirs (Panasenko, 2014). Folklore is rich in stylistic devices and therefore opens many a way to feel the spirit of the whole ethnos through words (CTamKO, 2014b; CTamKO, 2015a; 2015b). Metaphors of different types convey key thoughts and impressions made by historical or cultural events and cannot be neglected if the latter require accurate interpretation. As female images in American folk songs lie in the sphere of my interests (CramKO, 2014a), metaphor analysis may significantly facilitate understanding the influence route which can be figuratively called folk > words > images.
2 Research background
My research deals with metaphor usage in American folk songs in depth with the focus on female images creation. The selected folk songs embrace 1800-1950 historical period of America mainly because America is a comparatively young country, which was born in the 18 th century. Its folklore is also "young"; at the beginning it was just a replica of folk songs from Britain, Ireland, France and other countries the emigrants from which came to America due to different political, religious or personal reasons (CramKO, 2014c). With time there appeared local versions of famous and
