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143ROSSICA ANTIQUA. 2014 (1)
Aneta Golqbiowska-Tobiasz
Precious and decorative stones and other raw minerals in Polovtsian burial inventories (11th - beginning of 13th century).
Драгоценные камни (органические и минеральные), а также некоторые другие декоративные материалы из горных пород и окаменелостей оказывались в составе украшений половецких элит, мигрирующих из Заволжья на запад, в пределы пояса причерноморской степи и Предкавказья. Некоторые из драгоценных камней стали элементом строго определенного дресс-кода. Они сообщали о возрасте, социальном статусе владельца, определяли его пол и роль в обществе. Янтарь происходящий из Поморско-Самбийского пласта и, вероятно, горный хрусталь путешествовали через Киевскую Русь и Волжскую Болгарию в степь Причерноморья. Сердолик, агат, лазурит, коралл и некоторые жемчужины были импортированы в среду кочевников главным образом, через Великий Шелковый Путь. Мел и речной жемчуг, вероятно, были местного происхождения.
Ключевые слова: декоративные камни, янтарь, погребальные инвентаря, Половцы, Великий Шелковый Путь.
Precious stones, due to their coloration, gloss, structure, inclusions and rarity attracted interest of humanity from prehistoric times. As early as Palaeolithic they were used to produce tools (mountain crystal, chalcedony, obsidian). Due to their aesthetic values they were used for ornamental and magic purposes, and therefore they quickly became an indicator of high social status of their owners and important component of religious rites. Ornaments and magic items (amulets, talismans) made of decorative stones and with the oldest application include those made of, among others, amber, coral, pearls, mountain crystal, amethyst, serpentine, garnet, jasper, lapis lazuli and turquoise1.
Gemstones (organic and mineral) as well as rocks accompanied Polovtsian elites migrating from the Transvolga region to the west and
1 Schumann W. Kamienie szlachetne i ozdobne. Warszawa, 2011. P. 8.
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overtaking new encampments in the range of Black Sea steppe and Ciscaucasia. Their presence is recorded by archaeologist during exploratory researches conducted in burial complexes containing burial inventories belonging to the social stratum of Polovtsian horse warriors and their spouses2. Some of precious stones became an element of strictly defined dress code: they were not only a distinguishing feature of gender, social status of an owner, but also informed about age and attributes of a person who wore them or his/her role within the community.
Amber
A luxurious and rare raw mineral used to make decorations worn by the social stratum of Polovtsian aristocracy was amber. It belongs to category of decorative and precious stones of organic origins3. There is no doubt that amber adornments getting to steppes were coming from Pomeranian-Sambian succinite. According to recent physical and chemical analysis extraction of amber from the Dnieper deposits4 was impossible due to technological reasons. The beginning of exploration of those deposits is dated back to 17th century5. Baltic succinite, through the Daugava route, reached Novgorod, Old Ryazan, Murom and Vladimir on Klyaz’ma River, and then, after initial treatment, travelled further along the Volga River through Volga Bulgaria to the
2 For archeology only burials of Polovtsian aristocracy and horse warriors are perceptible. It is not known, how bodies of lower social strata were buried.
3 Schumann W. Kamienie szlachetne... P. 10.
4 Amber occurred also in the middle and lower course of Dnieper.
5 Information from dr Katarzyna Kwiatkowska and dr Inna Kuzina, for which I would like to express my thanks. See also: Колтовой Н. А., Мацуй В. М. Флуоресцентные методы исследования янтаря // Матерiали Мгжнародного наукового семшару «Вщ смоли хвойних до бурштину. 1дентифжащя викопних смол» м. Кшв 17 травня. Кшв, 2012. C. 24-27; Хамайко Н. В., Колтовой М. О., Жу-румна О. Ю. Бурштин з археолопчних розкопок Кшвського Подолу 2008 р. // Матерiали Мгжнародного наукового семшару «Ввд смоли хвойних до бурштину. 1дентифжацш викопних смол» м. Кшв 17 травня. Кшв, 2012. C. 58-61.
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southeast6. The second lane of an old trade route led to the south, to Kiev7. The key role of northern Rus’ trade centres in distribution of the Pomeranian-Sambian amber is confirmed by analysis of recently discovered mediaeval depot of amber in Vladimir on Klyaz’ma River weighing 200 kg8. It was located in an underground chamber of a building that burned down in 12389.
Amber beads and pendants played not only decorative, but also magical role. According to beliefs among Turks bead necklaces were related to the fertility magic. Usually barrel or spherical shape beads were made of amber. In order to highlight their visual values the cab-ochon cut was applied. There are also specimens made with a technique similar to the facet cut making a bead tetragonal in cross-section (e.g. Josipovka grave 710). Items with smaller diameter were used in necklaces and as decorations of caftans (site: Rosava grave 8, mound 211; Romashkino mound 112; Davydovka mound 1513; Kamenka
6 Шаповалов Р. Г. Обработка янтаря в средневековом Новгороде // Новгород
и Новгородская Земля. История и археология Новгорода. 1998. Выпуск 12. C. 10. Available at: http://www.bibliotekar.ru/rusNovgorod/71.htm (accessed 06.09.2014);
Зеленцова О. В., Кузина И. Н., Милованов С. И., Черненко В. В. Янтарь из раскопок в древнейшей части Владимира-на-Клязьме // Балтийский янтарь. Наука. Культура. Экономика. Материалы международного научного симпозиума «Добыча и обработка янтаря на Самбии», Калининград, 12-14 мая 2010 г. Калининградский музей янтаря, Калининград, 2010. C. 80-81; Зеленцова О. В., Кузина И. Н., Милованов С. И. Amber trade in Medieval Rus’: the current state and prospects for research // The international amber research symposium. Gdansk, 2013. P. 80; Великий Болгар (Атлас из серии «Tartarica»). Мoсквa; Казань, 2013. С. 88-90, 95.
7 Гупало К. Н., Ивакин Г. Ю. O ремесленном производстве на Киевском Подоле // Советская археология. 1980. №. 2. C. 212; Зеленцова О. В., Кузина И. Н., Милованов С. И. Amber trade in Medieval Rus’... P. 79.
8 Колтовой Н. А., Мацуй В. М. Флуоресцентные методы. C. 27.
9 Зеленцова О. В., Кузина И. Н., Милованов С. И., Черненко В. В. Янтарь из раскопок. C. 75-76; Зеленцова О. В. Кузина И. Н. Раскопки во Владимире. 2013. Available at: http://www.archaeolog.ru/?id=226 (accessed 18.03.2014).
10 Беляев О. С., Молодчикова I. O. Похования кочшниюв на р. Орель // Ар-хeoлoгiя. 1978. №. 28. C. 90; 91: photo 7.2.
11 Dqbrowska E. Kurhany rassawskie // Archeologia. 1958. Nr 8, zeszyt 1. 1956. P. 131; 166: tabl. VII.1, VII.10-12.
12 Ольховский В. С. Исследования в Сакском районе ^brna // Археологические открытия 1982 года. М., 1984. C. 309.
13 Кубышев А. И. Работы Западнокрымской экспедиции // Археологические открытия 1986 года. М., 1988. C. 300.
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mound 1, group of mounds II14). Exceptionally, wire threaded beads (including amber specimen) decorated female wrist (Josipovka grave 715). Large amber specimens were transformed into pendants. Usually, these were rhomboidal pendants with flat cross-section with asymmetrical hole or spherical forms with a centrally drilled hole. Surface of decoration was carefully polished and sometimes also decorated with a groove. Pendants are present mainly in female burials (site: Ro-mashkino mound 116; Sokolovo grave II, mound 3, group of mounds IV17) (Tabl. - no. 1).
Adornments made of amber, through Ruthenian merchants, got to Crimea and Ciscaucasia and to Northern Caucasia. The main transit trade centre, linking the Black Sea area cities with Caucasia and Byzantium at the end of 10th - 12th century was Tmutorakan18. In this area amber beads were found in graves of warriors (site: Krasnyi mound 219; Tsemdolina grave 1620). In the latter one beads were fragments of horse’s harness decorations.
Import of amber continued even after the Mongol invasion. It was still a highly valued raw mineral, both among women and men from the highest social stratum. Two massive amber beads of a double-cone shape constituted a decoration of a Polovtsian woman’s kaf-
14 Косиков В. А., Гриб В. К. Парное кочевническое погребение из кургана у села Каменка в Донецкой области // Советская археология. 1985. №. 2. C. 260.
15 Беляев О. С., Молодчикова I. O. Похования кочшниюв...С. 90; 91: photo 7.2.
16 Ольховский В. С. Исследования в Сакском районе.. .C. 309.
17 Шалoбудов В. Н. Позднекочевнические погребения с керамикой (по материалам экспедиции ДГУ) // Проблемы археологии Поднепровья. Межвузовский сборник научных трудов. Днепропетровск. 1993. C. 95; 96: fig. 2.3.
18 Алексеева Е. П. Находки славяно-русского облика X - XIV вв. на Северном Кавказе // Вoпросы археологии и средневековой истории Карачаево-Черкесии. Сборник научных трудов. Черкесск, 1989. C. 106-107.
19 Черепанова Е. Н., Щепинский А. А. Погребения поздних кочевников в степном Крыму // Археологические исследования средневекового Крыма. Киев, 1968. C. 195.
20 Армарчук E. A., Малышев A. A. Средневековый могильник в Цемесской Долине // Историко-археологический Альманах. Армавир-Москва. 1991. Вып. 3. C. 106; 100: fig. 7.5-6.
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tan (presumably a clasp) from the site Vysokaya Gora (mound 3)21 (Tabl. - no. 3). Amber pendant carefully elaborated into a rhomboidal shape hung on a warrior’s chest, perhaps protecting him from the «evil eye» (site: Dubovky22) (Tabl. - no. 2). Burials were dated back
to the end of 13th - beginning of 14th century.
Map 1.
Amber served as a raw material for gems embedded in metal applications of attire and for the amber mass used to encrust metal. An exceptional example of an application of amber mass in decorations is
21 Кравец В. В., Березуцкий В. Д., Бойков А. А. Погребения кочевой знати золотоордынского времени в курганной группе «Высокая гора» на юге Воронежской области // Донская археология Ростов на Дону. № 3-4. 2000. C. 119; 124: fig. 7.11-12.
22 Шалобудов В. Н. Ещё раз о находках распрямленных гривен в половецких погребениях // Исследования по археологии Поднепровья. Днепропетровск, 1990. C. 116; 114: fig. 3.4.
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a set of ceremonial weaponry of Polovtsian Khan from the site Zamo-zhnoye including a shield, side quiver and quiver. In a central point of each of these objects there is a gold-plated silver circular frame with embedded cone made of the amber mass. Each such ornament was attached to the surface of weaponry element with silver pins. An amber knob of a sabre head was also made of the amber mass in a Rus’ workshop23. All items were custom-made.
Amber occurred in the Polovtsian community almost simultaneously with their migration to the Black Sea area, which is ascertained by the earliest dated finds of this type (end of 10th - 11th century). During the Polovtsian domination until turmoil period associated with the Mongol invasion it was used mainly as a decoration of high born women. It occurs also in Polovtsian aristocracy graves related to social and military structures of the Golden Horde period (Map 1) 24
Mountain crystal
Another material that with high probability through Rus’ workshops got to the south, to the steppe area was mountain crystal. It is a type of colourless, transparent quartz. This silicate mineral is quite common on Earth (12% of volume)25. In the Central Europe mountain crystal was used to produce tools already in the middle Palaeolithic26. In ancient times in Europe the crystal was extracted from the Alpes. In Middle Ages Volga Bulgaria served as an intermediary in delivering it to the Rus’ and Blats lands. Large deposits of mountain crystal were located in an immediate vicinity of the sphere of influence of Volga Bulgaria: in central and northern Urals and their exploration started
23 Отрощенко B. B., Рассамакт Ю. Я. Половецький комплекс Чингульсько-го кургат // Архeoлoгiя. 1986. №. 53. C. 25-28; 21: fig. 6.1-2, 6.4.
24 For map making I want to thank PhD Stsiapan Tsemushau.
25 Liber-Madziarz E., Teisseyre B. Mineralogia i petrografia. Wroclaw, 2000.
P. 91.
26 Lisowska E. Wydobycie i dystrybucja surowcow kamiennych we wczesnym sredniowieczu na Dolnym Slqsku. Instytut Archeologii. Wroclaw, 2014. P. 145.
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already in the late Palaeolithic27. Another source of this stone is India, where it was imported from as finished products (beads, gems, inserts) to Volga Bulgaria28. Deposits of mountain crystal occurred also in Transcaucasia29. The crystal as a jewellery material started to be used in Rus’ in 10th century. Indian mountain crystal was imported as a finished products (e.g. inserts) from Volga Bulgaria30. In workshops of Rus’ jewellers thin mineral was transformed mainly into spherical beads.
In the Polovtsian environment adornments made of mountain crystal were worn on neck, as necklaces, on wrists as bracelets or used to decorate hems of mirrors (Filatovka31; Josipovka grave 732, Petro-pavlovka grave 2, mound I, group of mounds V33). The crystal was used to produce other, exceptional adornments. This is evidenced by a find of a massive pendant polished in a form of an oval lens with plane-convex cross-section (female burial, site: Novoivanovka34, or ceremonial horse’s harness separator in a horse burial no. 2, made with a facet cut (square in cross-section, pentagonal in longitudinal section with a cross-like opening in Zamozhnoye, male burial35). The datation of sited closes within 11th - 13 th century.
27 Information about tools from late Paleolithic from sites located in Subpolar Ural i have received from MA Yu. Koval and for that I would like to thank him. -Кварц и его разновидности («Семейство кварца»). Available at: http://mindraw.web.ru/mineral1.htm (accessed 18.05.2014).
28 Великий Болгар. C. 110.
29 Аксентон Ю. Б. Дорогие камни в культуре древней Руси (по памятником
прикладного исскуства и литературы XI - XV веков): дисс......кандидата ист.
наук. Л., 1973. C. 204: map.
30 Великий Болгар. C. 110.
31 Бессонова С. С., Черных Л. А., Купрый С. А. Курганы у с. Филатовка // Курганы степного Крыма. Киев, 1984. C. 59; 58: fig. 12.6.
32 Беляев О. С., Молодчикова I. O. Похования кочiвникiв... C. 90; 91: photo 7.2.
33 Шалобудов В. Н. Ещё раз о находках распрямленных гривен. C. 110 108: fig. 1.17.
34 Швецов М. Л. Богате коч1вницьке поховання з Донбасу // Археолопя. 1974. №. 13. C. 96.
35 ОтрощенкоB. B., РассамактЮ. Я. Половецький комплекс...C. 17.
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An artefact made of mountain crystal, dated back to the Golden Horde times was found in a burial of Polovtsian woman as an amulet (site: Russkiy Kolodiets grave 2 mound VII/1136).
Unfortunately they were never subjected to gemmological survey and therefore it is impossible to clearly determine provenance of these relics.
Carnelian
A decorative stone, eagerly worn by Polovtsian women as necklaces of beads was carnelian. It is a half-translucent type of coloured silicate mineral - chalcedony with lively, slightly dim, orange and red colour37. Among Turks adornments made of carnelian were magical. According to ethnographic data red beads guaranteed an abundance of children. The red colour was also protective38. The oldest adornments made of this raw material are dated back to 3 thousand BC and come from Mesopotamia, occurring up to Pakistani-India area39. Outcrops of carnelian were located also in India, Mongolia, Tibet, Iran, Egypt and Asia Minor. In Middle Ages carnelian was imported to the steppe area mainly through the Silk Road40. An intermediary in the carnelian trade from India was Volga Bulgaria41. Carnelian in various shades occurs also in the Kara-Dar Massif, Crimea and northern Caucasus42.
Carnelian bead necklaces were often discovered in funeral inventories in the North Caucasus in graves linked with Alans. Along with people from North Caucasus migrating after turbid events at the beginning of 8th century the carnelian beads reached also new areas - in the Middle Seversky Donets Basin. They were found in female inven-
36 Илюков Л. С., Казакова Л. М. Курганы Миусского Полуострова. Ростов-на-Дону, 1988. C. 129.
37 Liber-MadziarzE., Teisseyre B. Mineralogia i petrografrn... P. 92.
38 Львова Э. Л., Октябрьская И. В., Сагалаев А. М., Усманова М. С. Традиционное мировоззрение тюрков Южной Сибири. Пространство и время. Вещный мир. Новосибирск, 1988. C. 174.
39 LisowskaE. Wydobycie i dystrybucja. P. 145.
40 Аксентон Ю.Б. Дорогие камни.. .C. 204: map.
41 Великий Болгар. C. 110.
42 Беляев О. С., Молодчикова I. O. Похования коч1вник1в. C. 90.
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tories, in burials dated back to the end of 8th - 10th century43. The frequent occurrence of this adornments in Caucasus supports the hypothesis that they arrived at the Black Sea steppe area from the east. Beads were made using cabochon cut.
Female burials with camelian artifacts
1 Davydovka, Akimovsky Raion, Zaporozhye District
2 Josipovka, Paviograd Raion, Dniepropetrovsk District
3 Kurakhovo, Marinsky Raion, Donetsk District
4 Kamenka, Starobeshevsky Raion, Donetsk District
5 Pokrovskoye (mound E), Kuibyshevsky Raion, Rostov District
6 Zimovniki, Zimovnikovsky Raion, Rostov District
Male burial with camelian artifacts
7 Tsemdolina. Novorossiya Raion, Krasnodar Krai District
Female burials with lapis lazuli artifacts
I Davydovka, Akimovsky Raion, Zaporozhye District
4 Kamenka. Starobeshevsky Raion, Donetsk District
5 Pokrovskoye (mound E), Kuibyshevsky Raion, Rostov District
8 Blagoveshchenky, Kamensk-Onieprovsky Raion. Zaporozhye District
9 Malokaterinovka, Zaporozhye Raion, Zaporozhye Oistrict
10 Paviograd, Dniepropetrovsk District
II Rosawa,Mironovsky Raion, Kiev District
12 Udachnoye, Melitopolsky Raion, Zaporozhye District
13 Jasinovataya, Starobeshevsky Raion, Donetsk District
14 Novoivanovka, Ambrosivsky Raion, Donetsk District
Male (?) burial with lapis lazuli artifacts
15 Pokrovskoye (mound D), Kuibyshevsky Raion, Rostov District Female burials with coral artifacts
1 Davydovka, Akimovsky Raion, Zaporozhye District 4 Kamenka, Starobeshevsky Raion, Donetsk District 9 Malokaterinovka, Zaporozhye Raion, Zaporozhye District
16 Romashkino, Saksky Raion, Simferopol Oistrict
17 Susanina Saksky Raion, Simferopol District
18 Sokolova Novomoskovsky Raion, Dniepropetrovsk Districkt
19 Liesnoye,Volnovakhsky Raion, Donetsk District
Map 2.
Dating and mapping of Polovtsian sites do not help solving the issue of sources from which this material get to nomadic environment (Map 2). It occurs in inventory dated back to 11th century until 13th century. Unfortunately, an analysis of chemical composition was never performed. With high probability it can be assumed that the stone was preliminary processed in areas, where it was mined. Together with merchants it travelled along trade routers to the west or
43 Плетнева С. А. На славяно-хазарском пограничье. Дмитриевский археологический комплекс. М, 1989. C. 121.
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along one of lines of routes leading through Central and Western Asia to Volga Region and further to Volga Bulgaria.
Carnelian beads marked burials of Polovtsian women. These were adornments of a spherical shape made with a cabochon cut with a drilled opening (Davydovka mound 1544; Josipovka45; Kamenka mound I group of mounds II46, burial of a girl from Kurakhovo47, Zimovniki48; Pokrovskoye mound E49). Additionally, also a cut similar to facet was used (with a hexagonal cross-section - Josipovka grave 750.
Exceptionally, carnelian beads were present also a rich burial of «er» from Tsemdolina as a decoration of horse’s harness (grave 1651).
Agate
Agate, and particularly scarlet and orange types of this coloured silicate mineral are commonly confused with carnelian and is also a type of chalcedony52. Its structure includes multi-coloured, alternately arranged ribbons. In ancient times it was extracted in Sicily53. Agate outcrops occurred also in Urals and Crimea (including the Kara-Dar Massif and sources of the Alma River), in Southern Caucasus and India54. In Egypt the stone was dedicated to the Iris goddess. It was believed that it had powers to stop haemorrhages.
44 Кубышев А. И. Работы Западнокрымской экспедиции. C. 300.
45 Беляев О .С., Молодчикова I. O. Похования кочшниюв... C. 90.
46 Косиков В. А., Гриб В. К. Парное кочевническое погребение. C. 258.
47 Стороженко С. Раскопки Кураховской курганной группы // Археологические открытия 1970 года. М., 1971. C. 297.
48 Парусимов И. Н. Новочеркасская экспедиция // Археологические открытия 1996 года. М., 1997. C. 222.
49 Ларенок В. А. Средневековые комплексы из раскопок братьев Миллеров в начале XX в. // Донская Археология. 1998. №. 1. C. 79.
50 Беляев О. С., Молодчикова I. O. Похования коч1вниюв...С. 90; 91: photo 7.2.
51 Армарчук E. A., Малышев A. A. Средневековый могильник. C. 106.
52 Liber-MadziarzE., Teisseyre B. Mineralogia i petrografia.P. 92.
53 LisowskaE. Wydobycie i dystrybucja.P. 145.
54 Schumann W. Kamienie szlachetne.P. 146, 150.
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From the nomadic environment two bead finds are known so far. Agate beads came from two Polovtsian burials: female from Da-vydovka mound 1555, dated back to 12th - 13th century, and male from Jasinovatoye III (grave 3, mound 1556) dated back to the second half of 11th - 12th century. Both were situated near trade routes leading from Rus’ towards south and east. Determining their precise source is, however, impossible.
Lapis lazuli
The oldest deposits of lapis lazuli were located in the western Hindu Kush, Afghanistan and explored in ancient times delivering material to Egypt57. This deposit was explored already 6 thousand years ago. Deposits of lapis lazuli occur also on south-east shore of the Lake Baikal58. The Great Silk Road played an important role in dissemination of this stone that powdered served as a dye. Along with merchants in 7th century it got to Byzantium, where was used for painting iconostases59. Turkic peoples may, however, know this stone from other sources - deposits of Southern Prebaikalia60.
Definitely lapis lazuli belonged to favourite decorative stones worn by Polovtsian women. This beautiful, intensely blue, opaque silicate mineral was used to produce trapezoid or resembling triangles massive pendants with flat or slightly lenticular cross-section worn in necklaces around neck. This mineral, in addition to decorative, played also a magic role - it was a powerful, personal amulet61. Among eastern nomads there was a belief that lapis lazuli is a heavenly stone and thus a person wearing it remained under guardianship of a heavenly
55 КубышевА. И. Работы Западнокрымской экспедиции. C. 300.
56 Ляшко С. Н., Попандопуло З. Х., Дровосекова О. В. Курганные могильники Днепровского Надпорожья (Ясиноватое, Днепровка, Петро-Михайловка). Запорожье, 2004. C. 36; 117: fig. 44.9-10.
57 Аксентон Ю. Б. Дорогие камни.. .C. 204: map.
58 Schumann W. Kamienie szlachetne.P. 188.
59 Макарова Т. И. Украшения и амулеты из лазурита у кочевников XXI вв. // Археологический сборник. 1962. №. 4. C. 127.
60 See: Аксентон Ю.Б. Дорогие камни.. .C. 204: map.
61 Макарова Т. И. Украшения и амулеты.. .C. 133.
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deity - Tengri. Rhomboidal and triangle pendants resembling schematic anthropomorphic silhouette were intended to protect an owner against diseases and ensure benevolence of Heaven. Perhaps they originated from the ongoni cult widespread among the people of Central Asia62. It would also serve as a symbol of ancestor-guardian of family, extremely important in the spiritual culture of Polovtsians. A proof of popularity of adornments made of lapis lazuli among Polovtsian aristocratic women includes numerous representations of such adornments on anthropomorphic steles - both as necklaces and single, trapezoid pendants63.
Lapis lazuli pendants were used by Polovtsian ancestors, camping at Central Asia areas in the steppe bands stretching from southern part of West Siberia. These objects are present also in cultural layers dated back to 11th - 12th century, at strongholds located at the periphery of half-deserts and steppes such as: Sauran, Keder, Otrar (middle course of Syr Darya), Kesken-Kuyuk-Kala (mouth of Syr Darya), Tok-kala (mouth of Amu Darya) as well as in settlements and oases at the mouth of Syr Darya. These were also frontier areas through which groups of Oghuz Turks, Pechenegs (Kangars) migrated and coming to the area Kipchaks and Kimaks federates. Adornments made of lapis lazuli were found during archaeological researches in Volga Bulgaria (Bulgar) and Volga Selitrennoye stronghold (Селитренное городище) identified with the Volga Golden Horde Sarai64.
In the European part of Deszt-i-Kipczak necklaces made of lapis lazuli pendants were found at Blagoveshchenky site (grave 2)65, Da-
62 Ibid. C. 133-134.
63 Плетнева С. А. Пoлoвецкие каменные изваяния. М., 1974. e.g. Catalogue. С. 121: tabl. 5, stele no. 22; 123: tabl. 7, stele no. 28; 126: tabl. 10, stele no. 32; 127: tabl. 11, stele no. 42; 134: tabl. 18, stele no. 121; 165: tabl. 49, stele no. 806; 177: tabl. 61, stele no. 1144; 180: tabl. 64, stele no. 1149.
64 Смагулов Е. А. Древний Сауран. Алматы. 2011. C. 273-274.
65 Плешивенко А. Г., Попандопуло З. Х. Исследования Запорожского краеведческого музея // Археологические открытия 1986 года. М., 1988. C. 327; Попандопуло З. Х. Погребение с оружием и женскими украшениями // Международные связи в средневековой Европе. Тезисы научных докладов и сообщений областного научно-практического семинара (16 - 18 октября 1988 г.). Запорожье, 1988. C. 47.
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vydovka66; Kamenka (mound 1, group of mound II)67, (Tabl. - no. 5), Malokaterinovka (grave 2, mound 9)68, (Tabl. - no. 4a), Pavlohrad (grave 1, mound 4, group of mound I) 69, Pokrovskoye (mound E) 70, Rosava (grave 2, mound 8)71, (Tabl. - no. 7). A single, pear-shaped pendant constituted one of elements of female grave equipment from Udachnoye72.
Gems used as a decorative element in metal inlays were also made of lapis lazuli. In Novoivanovka golden adornments described by an author of excavations as brooches were found. Seats were inserted with lapis lazuli73. Silver earrings «of Polovtsian type» from Jasinovataya were provided with almond-shaped beads made of lapis lazuli inserted in seats using filigree framing74 (Tabl. - no. 6).
Importance of lapis lazuli among other decorative stones is confirmed by the fact that Rus’ jewellers producing silver bracelets for Polovtsian princesses inserted this, specially imported mineral75 (site: Rosava mound 676, Rosava grave 1, mound 877, Rosava mound 1478).
66 КубышевА. И. Работы Западнокрымской экспедиции. C. 300.
67 Косиков В. А., Гриб В. К. Парное кочевническое погребение... C. 258; 261: fig. 4.6.
68 Плешивенко А. Г. Курганы села Малокатериновка. Запорожье. 1996. С. 16, tabl. IX.14.
69 Шалoбудов В. Н. Неопубликованные кочевнические погребения, откры-
тые новостроечными экспедициями ДГУ в 1972-1999 гг. // Проблемы археологии Подтровья. Днепропетровск, 2012. Available at:
http://swordmaster.org/2013/05/10/neopublikovannye-kochevnicheskie-pogrebeniya-otkrytye-novostroechnymi-ekspediciyami-dgu-v-1972-1999-gg.html (accessed
10.01.2013).
70 ЛаренокВ. А. Средневековые комплексы из раскопок. C. 79.
71 DqbrowskaE. Kurhany rassawskie... P. 132; 166: tabl. VII.3-5.
72 Болтрик Б. Ю. Раскопки курганов на Мелитопольщине // Археологические открытия 1985. М., 1987. С. 308.
73 ШвецовМ. Л. Богате кочшницьке поховання.С. 96; 94: fig. 1.7.
74 Привалова О. Я. Богатые кочевнические погребения из Донбасса // Археологический альманах. 1988. №. 7. C. 167; 165: fig. 5.2-3.
75 See e.g.: Корзухина Г. Ф. Русские клады IX-XIII вв. М.; Л., 1954. Tabl. V, XIII.2, XIV.1-3, XXIX.11-12, 15, XXX.4, XXXI.5-6, XLI.5-6, XLVII.6-7, LXII.1, 3, 6.
76 DqbrowskaE. Kurhany rassawskie.. .P. 128; tabl. Ш.3.
77 Ibid. P. 131.
78 Ibid. P. 133.
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Among the Polovtsian lapis lazuli was a stone dedicated to women and therefore the discovery at the Pokrovskoye site shall be considered extraordinary, because in a kurgan D79 a trapezoid pendant was buried with a man80.
Lapis lazuli adornments occur already in early stages of migration of Polovtsian Hordes, which is indicated by an early datation of burials (end of 10th / beginning of 11th century) located in newly invaded areas. They are parts of female inventories throughout 12th century until the first half of 13th century and their presence is associated with the flourish of Polovtsian unions. These adornments disappear in graves of Polovtsian woman after the Mongol invasion.
Coral
An important raw mineral of organic origins, used in production of neck adornments that was characteristic for female dress-code was coral. Corals valued in ancient times occurred in the Red Sea, off the coast of India, and also off the coast of Algeria and Tunisia in the Mediterranean Sea81. In Egypt coral was dedicated to Isis and in Rome to Venus.
Among Turkic people, due to its brightly red colour, coral was believed to be an amulet associated with the fertility magic. According to ethnographic data in Turkic society it was believed that coral branches protected souls of girls82.
Glassy gloss was obtained using facet cut. Coral was exposed as branches sewn on leather straps alternating with massive lapis lazuli pendants (site: Kamenka mound I, group of mounds II)83 (Tabl. - no. 5), Malokaterinovka (grave 2, mound 9)84 (Tabl. - no. 4) or wire
79 ЛаренокВ. А. Средневековые комплексы из раскопок.
80 As far as anthropological analysis of remains was correct.
.C. 78.
81 Schumann W. Kamienie szlachetne.P. 250.
82 Львова Э. Л., Октябрьская И. В., Сагалаев А. М, Усманова М. С. Традиционное мировоззрение. C. 174.
83 Косиков В. А., Гриб В. К Парное кочевническое погребение.С. 258; 261: fig. 4.6.
84 ПлешивенкоА. Г. Курганы села Малокатериновка. C. 16, tabl. IX.11.
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threaded forming necklace (Kamenka mound I, group of mounds II)85, Davydovka (mound 15)86, Liesnoye (mound 4)87. Coral branches were also exposed as pendants (Romashkino mound 1)88, Sokolovo (grave II, mound 3, group of mounds IV)89 (Tabl. - no. 1a), Susanino90.
Coral branches, similarly as carnelian and lapis lazuli accompanied burials of woman belonging to the highest social stratum throughout the domination of Polovtsians at the Black Sea steppes (end of 10th / beginning of 11th - beginning of 13th century).
No comparative analysis or studies of corals found were performed so far, therefore it is difficult to determine where they were delivered from. The most probable source of this ram material seems to the Middle East (Egypt or India). This seems to be plausible due co-occurrence of lapis lazuli and carnelian pendants - and these minerals were most likely delivered by caravans travelling along the Great Silk Road.
Chalk
Limestone and chalk quite often occur in Polovtsian burials. These materials were used during funeral rituals spilling pieces of these rocks into graves, onto coffin lids or body of the deceased. Chalk belongs to soft types of limestone rocks and is characterised by a wide spectrum of shades of white, beige, grey and blue91. Hence the ease of elaboration and recognition of its aesthetic values, but at the same time this material is less durable than other kinds of limestone. Chalk was an easily accessible raw material on the Black Sea steppe.
85 Косиков В. А., Гриб В. К Парное кочевническое погребение...С. 258; 261: fig. 4.19.
86 КубышевА. И. Работы Западнокрымской экспедиции. C. 300.
87Цыбин М. Б. Погребения средневековых кочевников X - XIV вв. в среднем Подонье // Советская архeoлoгия. 1986. №. 3. C. 263; 261: fig. 3.16.
88 Ольховский В. С. Исследования в Сакском районе. C. 308.
89 Шалoбудов В. Н. Позднекочевнические погребения с керамикой. C. 95; 96: fig. 2.3.
90 Ольховский В. С. Раскопки в степном Крыму // Археологические открытия 1986 года. М., 1988. C. 319.
91 Liber-MadziarzE., Teisseyre B. Mineralogia i petrografrn.P. 156.
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Its large deposits still occur at the border between steppe and forest-steppe being main rock of hills along which the Seversky Donets River flows. Chalk was used by Polovtsian masons, which is confirmed by a few preserved to our times specimens of anthropomorphic steles92. Their technical condition, however, leaves much to be desired and the conservation is difficult due to the structure of material.
Therefore finds of chalk adornments are extraordinary. At the Saratov Volga region in one of female burials a necklace was found consisted of, among others, spherical chalk beads - of various diameter (site: Liesnoye, mound 4)93. Unfortunately also in this case no petrographic analysis of the material was performed. It can be only presumed that the material came from local chalk deposits or was imported from outcrops located along the Seversky Donets River.
Pearls
Finds of pearl adornments are unique artefacts characteristic for female Polovtsian burials. An interesting find is a pair of earrings from the site Moskovskyi (mound 18)94. Decorative element consisted a pendant made of a small wooden (birch) rhomboidal board with sewn pearls. Unfortunately an author of the study did not mentioned where did they come from. In the second case it is known that the female adornment was made of soft river pearl (site: Romashkino mound 1)95. A large specimen served as a pendant. In addition to pendant in this grave also beads made of nacre were found, presumably also obtained from freshwater pearl mussel. It should be also noted that a clasp of necklace from Kamenka was made of nacre (mound 1,
92 Плетнева С. А. n^oBeuKue каменные изваяния. e.g. Catalog, С. 176, tabl. 60, stele no. 1119; 177, tabl. 61, stele no. 1120 and 1126; 179, tabl. 63, stele no. 1142 and 1143.
93 Цыбин М. Б. Погребения средневековых кочевников...С. 263; 261: fig.
3.16.
94 Ильюков Л. С. Раскопки курганов на левобережье Сала // Археологические открытия 1986 года. М, 1988. C. 126.
95 Ольховский В. С. Исследования в Сакском районе. C. 309.
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group of mounds II)96 (Tabl. - no. 5). Small pearls were also sewn on rims of clothes. Ceremonial caftans from the aristocratic burial from Zamozhnoye had brocade merceries and «medallions» decorated with pearls - more than 35 00097. Decorative elements were cut out of vestments and sewn as additional decoration of silk caftans98. Dating the above mentioned grave complexes closes within end of 10th - first decades of 13 th century that is the period of expansion and stabilisation of Polovtsian on the Black Sea steppes.
Pearls were used as inlays in metal decorations. An exceptional item is a silver plaque (broche?) decorated with pearls and filigree discovered in a grave of Polovtsian women dated back to the Golden Horde period99 (site: Russkiy Kolodiets grave 2, mound VII/11)100. When drilled served as decorations of feet of earrings in a shape of question mark - a relic characteristic for late Polovtsian inventories101 (e.g.: site: Russkiy Kolodiets: female grave 2, mound VII/5102, Russkiy Kolodiets grave 2, mound VII/11103, site: Alebastrovo, mound 5104.
Freshwater mussels live in rivers of the European Lowland (including northern Russia) and in mountain rivers of the Central and Eastern Europe105. It is therefore possible that pearls and nacre products got to nomads’ habitat through Kievian Rus’ or Volga Bulgaria.
96 Косиков В. А., Гриб В. К Парное кочевническое погребение...С. 258; 261: fig. 4.6.
97 Woodfin W. T. Rassamakin Yu., Holod R. Foreign vesture and nomadic identity on the Black Sea Littoral in the early thirteenth Century // Ars Orientalis. 2010. No. 38. P. 164: photo 10, 11; 166; 167: photo 15.
98 Доде З. В. Ткани c христианской символикой в костюме Золотоордынской элиты // Российская археология. 2014. №. 1. C. 54-55.
99 Beginning of 15th century.
100 Илюков Л. С., Казакова Л. М. Курганы Миусского полуострова. 129; 128: fig. 28.13.
101 13th _ 14th century.
102 Илюков Л. С., Казакова Л. М. Курганы Миусского полуострова. C. 120; 121: fig. 25.13.
103 Ibid. C. 129; 128: fig. 28.15.
104 Кригер В. А., Железчиков Б. Ф. Позднекочевнические погребения у пос. Рубёжка и Алебастрово Уральской области // Советская археология. 1980. №. 1. C. 303; 303: fig. 3.1.
105 Schumann W. Kamienie szlachetne.P. 259.
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Shells
In the environment of Turkic people shells belonged to attributes of the shaman’s attire. According to ethnographic data they symbolised female heavenly spirits106. In the distant past shamans frequently led military expeditions becoming heads of federated families107. Later chiefs of families simultaneously played roles of shamans and therefore inventories include items of religious significance such as: bow and arrows, kettles or less frequently shells108.
It is possible that this role could have been also played by a heavily armed horse warrior belonging to the elite of Polovtsian family, camping at Ros’ River Basin (site: Rosava mound 9)109. He wore a shell-pendant on his neck. Unfortunately, it was not determined whether it was a shell of freshwater or seawater mussel110. The burial was dated back to 12th - 13 th century, a period of political, social and economic flourishing of Polovtsian federations. A rich inventory of the grave complex from Minovka contained a cypraeidae shell (kauri) originally worn by a Polovtsian warrior on his neck (grave 2, mound 3)111. This site is well dated with coins back to 60s of 14th century.
Cypraeidae live mainly in areas, where coral reefs occur. Beautifully coloured specimens were caught off the coast of India and Egypt. In ancient times cypraeidae have been fished also in the Mediterranean Sea. These specimens, however, were smaller and had simpler patterns on shells in comparison with their relatives from warm waters. In Europe they served as female amulets linked with the fertil-
106 Львова Э. Л., Октябрьская И. В., Сагалаев А. М., Усманова М. С. Традиционное мировоззрение... C. 175-176.
107 Кызласов Л. Р. O шаманизме древнейших тюрков // Советская археология. 1990. №. 3. C. 261-262.
108 Швецов М. Л. Котлы из погребений средневековых кочевников // Советская археология. 1980. №. 2. C. 199-200; Львова Э. Л., Октябрьская И. В., Сагалаев А. М., УсмановаМ. С. Традиционное мировоззрение..^. 140.
109 DqbrowskaE. Kurhany rassawskie.P. 132; 169: tabl. X.1-2.
110 Judging by a photo published by Dqbrowska and which is of a very poor quality and contains no scale, the shell probably came from a freshwater mussel. -DqbrowskaE. Kurhany rassawskie... P. 169: tabl. X.1, 2.
111 Шалобудов В. Н., Кудрявцева И. В. Кочевнические погребения среднего Приорелья // Курганы степного Поднепровья. Днепропетровск, 1980. C. 91.
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ity magic. At the end of 10th century kauri mussels were used as a currency on the internal Bulgarian market112.
Presumably kauri from Minovka was an eastern import, imported through one of far-reaching trade routes - possibly through Volga Bulgaria.
Table of the artifacts.
1.Sokolovo, Novomoskovsky Raion, Dniepropetrovsk District: amber, coral (cf. Shalobudov, 1993, 96: Fig. 2.3).
2. Dubovki, Pavlograd Raion, Dniepropetrovsk District.: amber (cf. Shalobudov, 1990, 114: Fig. 3.4).
3. Vysokaya Gora, Bogucharsky Raion, Voronezh District: amber (cf. Kravets, Berezutskyi, Boykov, 2000, 124: Fig. 7.12).
4. Malokaterinovka, Zaporozhyie Raion, Zaporozhyie District: coral, lapis lazuli (cf. Pleshyvienko, 1996, Fig. IX.11, IX. 14).
5. Kamenka, Starobeshevsky Raion, Donetsk District: necklace (tamaksa): lapis lazuli, coral, clasp of mother of pearl patch on the leather (cf. Kosikov, Grib, 1985, 261: Fig. 4.6).
6. Jasinovataya, Starobeshevsky Raion, Donetsk District: gold, lapis lazuli - without scale (Photo courtesy of Olga Y. Privalova - Author of the excavation, researcher from the Donetsk Regional Museum).
7. Rosava, Mironovsky Raion, Kiev District: amber, lapis lazuli - without scale (cf. Dqbrowska, 1958, 166: Fig. VII.304, Vn.11-12).
112 Великий Болгар. C. 99.
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* * *
Results of analysis based on published outcomes constitute a subjective research material. Studies on many nomadic burials are careless or unfinished, many materials coming from that period never enter into scientific consciousness. Also methods and reliability of researches conducted on sites and related to late nomads lead to loss of valuable information about this extraordinary political and economic formation created in adverse conditions. Therefore, researches will never result in a reliable image of spiritual and material culture of people reigning the Eurasian steppe area.
Based on such an imperfect research source as reports or archaeological materials published or known to the author it is possible to draw some conclusions on the role of gemstones in social and spiritual dimension of the Polovtsian environment.
Some minerals served as a gender and age indicator of an owner. These include undoubtedly: carnelian, lapis lazuli and coral. These gemstones belonged to women of high birth in reproductive age - presumably spouses of ers, mothers and female counterparts of heads of family (qatun). Special symbolic and magic power had a compilation of coral and lapis lazuli pendants. In addition to favours of Heaven it guaranteed fertility and continuity of the family. According to ethnographic data coral was a habitat of girls’ souls - maybe this is another argument confirming traces of strong matriarchal tradition among Polovtsian ancestors113. Carnelian had similar magical properties.
Shells played a unique role - possibly served as amulets worn by warriors or expressed their religious rank. Unfortunately they are artefacts rarely reported by authors of excavations and therefore it is difficult to state, whether linking them only with males is correct.
113 See: Шер Я. А. Каменные изваяния Семиречья. М; Л., 1966. C. 62-63; Плетнева С. А. Женская пoлoвецкая статуя с ребенком // Советская археология. 1974. №. 3. C. 261-262; Красильников К. И. Древнее камнерезное искусство Луганщины. По материалам археологических коллекций антропоморфных стел и половецких каменных изваяний парка-музея Луганского пединститута и музеев Луганской области. Луганск, 1999. C. 42-43.
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Highly valued and luxurious raw materials were: amber, pearls and mountain crystal. This materials were worn both by women and men. Their aesthetic and material values made these decorations very desirable. They constituted a very important element of ceremonial dress and sometimes served also as decorations of weapons and horse harness, proving at the same time the high rank of an owner.
A small attractiveness of agates is surprising. Perhaps this is associated with specific «stripped» structure revealed after treatment. It is possible that those «stripes» was not a desired aesthetic or magic effect among nomads.
At the end it is worth mentioning the decorative role of chalk. It was a raw material used by masters of the art of steles - presumably due to the closeness of its deposits and obvious aesthetic values. It is therefore interesting that this rock was used as a jewellery material. Although chalk adornments were recorded at one site only, but this proves the recognition of values of local deposits and beauty items made of them.
Автор: Анета Голебиовска-Тобияш, археолог, независимый исследователь. Сотрудничает с Университетом Западной Богемии в Пльзене. (Кролевская ул., д. 69/29, Краков , 30-081, Польша) koczownicy@koczownicy.pl Заголовок: Precious and decorative stones and other raw minerals in Polovtsian burial inventories (11th - beginning of 13 th century) [Драгоценные, поделочные камни и другие декоративные материалы в половецких погребальных инвента-рях (XI - начала XIII века)].
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Information about the article
Author: Aneta Gol^biowska-Tobiasz - archaeologist, independent researcher (Krolewska St. 69/29, 30-081 Cracow, Poland). Cooperated with West Bohemian University in Plzen (Sedlackova St. 19, 306 14 Plzen, Czech Republika). koczowni-cy@koczownicy.pl
Title: Precious and decorative stones and other raw minerals in Polovtsian burial inventories (11th - beginning of 13th century).
Summary: Gemstones (organic and mineral) as well as rocks accompanied Polovtsian elites migrating from the Transvolga region to the west, in the range of Black Sea steppe and Ciscaucasia. Some of precious stones became elements of strictly defined dress code. They informed about age, social status of an owner, his/her gender and role within the community. Amber was coming from Pomeranian-
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Sambian succinite and probably with mountain crystal travelled through Kievian Rus’ and Volga Bulgaria in the Black Sea steppe. Carnelian, agate, lapis lazuli, coral and some pearls were imported to the nomads’ area mainly through the Great Silk Road. Chalk and river pearls probably came from local sites.
Keywords: decorative stones, amber, burial inventories, Polovtsians, the Great Silk Road.
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