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9THE CONCEPT OF A NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION
FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE 1997 POLISH CONSTITUTION ПОНЯТИЕ НЕПРАВИТЕЛЬСТВЕННОЙ ОРГАНИЗАЦИИ С ТОЧКИ ЗРЕНИЯ ПОЛЬСКОЙ КОНСТИТУЦИИ 1997 Deryng-Dziuk Anna, PhD, Дерынг-Дзюк Анна, канд.юр.наук, старший преподаватель
Institute of Administration, Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa, Poland
Abstract
The article presents an attempt at establishing a definition of a nongovernmental organization from the perspective of the 1997 Polish Constitution and answering two questions of particular importance: does the fact that the 1997 Polish Constitution fails to include the concept of a non-governmental organization have any effect on the understanding of the term itself? Does it affect the position of NGOs in the Polish legal system?
The analysis included in the paper leads to the conclusion that the idea of an NGO has its constitutional dimension. This is not hampered by the fact that the currently applicable Constitution does not operate with the term itself. Such constitutional dimension may be approached in various manners, depending on the adopted model of relations between the idea of a non-governmental organization and that of a community organization. Nevertheless, it proves justified to assume that the constitutional provisions do shape the understanding of the concept of NGO, but not in a way which would allow adopting a uniform definition applicable throughout the entire Polish legal system. The legislators have been offered a freedom to define the idea in diverse manners in individual statutes, and they certainly use that freedom.
Key words: non-governmental organization, community organization, Polish Constitution, freedom of association
I. The current Constitution of the Republic of Poland, enacted on 2nd April 19971 ("the Polish Constitution") fails to include the concept of a nongovernmental organization ("NGO"). This fact has been noticed by all researchers who have attempted to coin the definition of an NGO. For example, Anna Gronkiewicz points out that "(...) after the effective date of the Polish Constitution, we experienced a development of non-governmental organizations" [own translation]. The author adds that "the Constitution does not operate with such terms as "community organization" or "non-governmental organization", but only refers to selected forms of civil society organization" [own translation]. Similar opinion is presented by Przemyslaw Kledzik, who emphasizes that "none of the 243 articles of the 1997 Polish Constitution features the term 'non-
1 Official Journal of Laws Dziennik Ustaw No. 78, item 483, as amended.
2 A. Gronkiewicz, Organizacja spoieczna w ogolnym postqpowaniu administracyjnym, Warsaw 2012, p. 33.
3 A. Gronkiewicz, Organizacja spoieczna w ogolnympostqpowaniu administracyjnym, op. cit., p. 33.
governmental organization'"4 [own translation]. In turn, Andrzej Skoczylas and Mariusz Swora note that "the 1997 Constitution fails to regulate any specific roles/tasks to be fulfilled by non-governmental organizations in the public life". Moreover, "(...) the Constitution does not even operate with such terms as 'nongovernmental organization' or 'community organization', unlike the previous Basic Law"5 [own translation].
The term "non-governmental organization" did not appear in the Constitutional Act of 17th October 1992 on mutual relations between the legislative and the executive bodies of the Republic of Poland and on the local self-government6. Therefore, the concept of an NGO should not be expected to be found in the Constitution of the Republic of Poland enacted by the Legislative Sejm on 22nd July 19527.
However, when discussing the 1952 Constitution, one cannot fail to notice that it did in fact use the term "community organization" in its Art. 84(2), which stated that "Political organizations, trade unions, associations of working peasants, cooperative associations, youth, women's, sports and defense organizations, cultural, technical and scientific associations, as well as other community organizations, serve the purpose of gathering citizens to encourage them to active participation in the political, social, economic and cultural life" [own translation] .
The currently applicable 1997 Constitution fails to operate with the same idea of a community organization, but refers to its specific type, namely, to socio-occupational organizations of farmers.
In the light of the above-mentioned observations, it appears worthwhile to consider whether the fact that the 1997 Polish Constitution fails to cover the idea of a non-governmental organization bears any significance to the understanding of the term itself and whether it affects the position of NGOs in the Polish legal system. Attempts at answering these questions must be preceded with a brief discussion on the understanding of the term within the Polish jurisprudence and a reference to the considerable output in this area .
II. The Polish jurisprudence displays significant awareness of the fact that the definition of a non-governmental organization has not yet been fully developed
4 P. Kledzik, Dzialalnosc organizacji pozarz^dowych na rzecz realizacji celow publicznych. Studium administracyjno-prawne, Warsaw 2013, p. 23
5 A. Skoczylas, M. Swora, Organizacje spoleczne (pozarz^dowe) w postçpowaniu administracyjnym i s^dowoadministracyjnym, in: Organizacje spoleczne (pozarz^dowe) w postçpowaniu administracyjnym i s^dowoadministracyjnym) (Participation of NGOs in administrative and court - administrative procedures), p. 23.
6 Official Journal of Laws Dziennik Ustaw of 1992, No. 84, item 426.
7 Official Journal of Laws Dziennik Ustaw of 1976, No. 7, item 36 (consolidated text)
8 E. Les, Organizacje non profit w nowej polityce spolecznej w Polsce na tle europejskim, Warsaw 2013, p. 15; P. Staszczyk, Ustawa o dzialalnosci pozytku publicznego i o wolontariacie. Komentarz, Warsaw 2013, p. 15; A. Ceglarski, Organizacje pozytku publicznego, Warsaw 2005, p. 13; D. Moron, Organizacje pozarz^dowe -fundament spoleczenstwa obywatelskiego, Wroclaw 2012, p. 13; M. Halszka Kurleto, Organizacje pozarz^dowe w dzialalnosci pozytku publicznego, Warsaw 2008, p. 15.
and remains incoherent9. When trying to determine the meaning of the term (Polish term organizacja pozarzqdowa is a translation of the English nongovernmental organization - NGO10), we may experience a feeling of helplessness. One may even risk the thesis that the Polish legal order lacks a uniform definition of an NGO11. This view is confirmed by Marek Antoni Nowicki, who
claims that "there is no one and commonly applicable definition of a non-
12
governmental organization" [own translation].
13
The concept itself is applied in the international law , whereinto it was introduced under Art. 71 of the Charter of the United Nations14. In accordance with the Resolution of the UN Economic and Social Council, non-governmental organizations are organizations established under other means than international treaties, open to all interested parties, equipped with due, democratically elected representatives and mechanisms of control over their management15. What is more, they are characterized by their non-profit nature and established in line with the national legal regulations of the given state by natural or legal persons (entities governed by private law)16.
Defining the idea of an NGO requires that it be juxtaposed to the idea of a community organization. One general observation is that the mutual relations between the two concepts existing in the Polish legal system is frequently determined directly by legal provisions wherein the legislators have specified such relations. However, this is not the case here. As Anna Gronkiewicz duly notic-
17
es , "the Polish legal system does not include provisions which would determine the mutual relation between the concepts at hand" [own translation]. Yet this is no obstacle in distinguishing four possible types of relations between the concept of a non-governmental organization and that of a community organization.
Firstly, such relation may be that of equivalence, and, in consequence, the two terms could be used interchangeably. For example, Andrzej Skoczylas and Mariusz Swora deem the concepts of NGO and community organization synon-
9 A. Gronkiewicz, Organizacja spoleczna w ogolnym postçpowaniu administracyjnym, op. cit., p. 31.
10 J. Blicharz, in: J. Blicharz, A. Huchla (eds.), Ustawa o dzialalnosci pozytku publicznego i o wolontariacie. Komentarz, Warsaw 2008, p. 30 et seq.
English language features a number of terms used to designate non-governmental organization, such as voluntary organization (VO), civil society organization (CSO), non-profit organization (NPO), exempt organization (EO), vide: www.researchgate.net/publication/265346928 (29-10-2015) - A. Skoczylas, M. Swora, Organizacje spoleczne (pozarz^dowe) w postçpowaniu administracyjnym i s^dowoadministracyjnym, in: Organizacje spoleczne (pozarz^dowe) w postçpowaniu administracyjnym i s^dowoadministracyjnym) (Participation of NGOs in administrative and court - administrative procedures), p. 16.
11 Vide: P. Kledzik, Dzialalnosc organizacji pozarz^dowych na rzecz realizacji celow publicznych. Studium administracyjno-prawne, Warsaw 2013, p. 21 et seq.
12 Vide: M. A. Nowicki, Organizacje pozarz^dowe w postçpowaniu przed Europejsk^ Komisj^ i Trybunalem Praw Czlowieka w Strasburgu, „Panstwo i Prawo" (1996) vol. 8-9, p. 88 et seq.
13 J. Blicharz, in: J. Blicharz, A. Huchla (eds.), Ustawa o dzialalnosci pozytku publicznego i o wolontariacie. Komentarz, op. cit., p. 30.
14 P. Suski, Stowarzyszenia i fundacje, Warsaw 2011, p. 61.
15 Vide references in: P. Suski, Stowarzyszenia i fundacje, op. cit., p. 61.
16 Vide references in: P. Suski, Stowarzyszenia i fundacje, op. cit., p. 61; M. Jablonski, in: M. Jablonski, S. Jarosz-Zukowska (eds.), Prawa czlowieka i systemy ich ochrony. Zarys wykladu, Wroclaw 2004, p. 93.
17 A. Gronkiewicz, Organizacja spoleczna w ogolnym postçpowaniu administracyjnym, op. cit., p. 32.
ymous18. However, there are some who consider them to be two separate ideas19.
Secondly, the concept of a non-governmental organization could be considered vaster than the concept of a community organization. In consequence, each community organization would be a non-governmental organization, but not all non-governmental organizations would have the status of community organizations. One illustration of this is offered by the grounds for the judgment of 19th July 2005, delivered by the Voivodeship Administrative Court in Lodz in case no. III SA/Ld 243/05, where the Court admitted that "the idea of a nongovernmental organization undoubtedly accommodates foundations, which clearly results from Art. 3(2) of the Act of 24th April 2003 on Public Benefit and
Volunteer Work (Official Journal of Laws Dziennik Ustaw No. 96, item 873, as
20
amended)" [own translation].
Thirdly, the concept of a community organization could be considered vaster than the concept of a non-governmental organization. If we adopt this approach, each NGO would be a community organization, yet not every community organization could be classified as a non-governmental organization.
Finally, the division could be approached dichotomically. Therefore, a given entity would be classified either as a non-governmental organization or a community organization. This perspective requires that NGOs and community organizations be considered two separate conceptual categories.
However, it must be clearly stated here that the limited form of the article disallows complete analysis and assessment of each of the foregoing approaches, and that the principal reason for mentioning them here was to signalize the various possible understandings of the two ideas.
Selecting one of the above-listed approaches could have a significant effect on the perception of the constitutional dimension of a non-governmental organization, as it would allow referring (to a varying extent, depending on the adopted option) to the constitutional dimension of a community organization, well established in the jurisprudence.
The issue of mutual relations between the concepts of NGO and community organization has also proved to be an object of interest in judicial decisions. Worth noting here is, in particular, the position of the Supreme Administrative Court presented in the grounds for the resolution adopted by a bench composed of seven judges on 12th December 2005 (case no. II OPS 4/05), which says that "there are no reasons for substituting the concept of a community organization with that of a non-governmental organization or considering these two ideas as synonymous. These two approaches have been expressly denied by the provisions of the Act of 24th April 2003 on Public Benefit and Volunteer Work (Official Journal of Laws Dziennik Ustaw No. 96, item 873, as amended) which sets
18 A. Skoczylas, M. Swora, Organizacje spoieczne (pozarzqdowe) w postqpowaniu administracyjnym i sqdowoadministracyjnym, op. cit., p. 13.
19 Vide: A. Gronkiewicz and references in: A. Gronkiewicz, Organizacja spoieczna w ogolnym postqpowaniu administracyjnym, op. cit., p. 32.
20 Judgment of the Voivodeship Administrative Court in Lodz, 19th July 2005, case no. III SA/Ld 243/05
forth the rules of granting the status of a public benefit organization to nongovernmental organizations. The concept of a non-governmental organization accommodates all entities which are not public finance entities, community organizations included. Art. 3(2) of the Act on Public Benefit and Volunteer Work states that 'non-governmental organizations are legal persons and entities without legal personality, incorporated on the basis of legal regulations, which are not public finance entities, within the meaning of the public finance law, and
which operate without the purpose of gaining profits, including foundations and
21
associations, subject to Section 4'" [own translation].
Concluding this part of exposition, the most valid appears to be the position that the definition of a non-governmental organization ought to be each time constructed on the basis of a statute currently operating with the concept or reconstructed or decoded from the regulations of a given normative act. Accordingly, the current Polish legal system fails to offer a uniform definition of a nongovernmental organization.
When looking at the issue from the perspective of the Constitution, one may easily notice that the lack of any express definition criteria in respect of nongovernmental organizations (unlike, for example, socio-occupational organizations or foundations) allows for certain flexibility when defining the NGO in individual statutes. Such flexibility must not, of course, be unlimited. The existing freedom in this scope will obviously be affected by the regulations of the Constitution and, particularly, certain constitutional principles expressed directly therein, such as those pertaining to freedom of assembly (Arts. 12, 58 and 59 of the Polish Constitution), or decoded therefrom, like those concerning the civil society22.
In accordance with Art. 12 of the Constitution, "The Republic of Poland shall ensure freedom for the creation and functioning of trade unions, socio-occupational organizations of farmers, societies, citizens' movements, other voluntary associations and foundations". The instructions included in Art. 58 of the Constitution state: "1. The freedom of association shall be guaranteed to everyone. 2. Associations whose purposes or activities are contrary to the Constitution or statutes shall be prohibited. The courts shall adjudicate whether to permit an association to register or to prohibit an association from such activities. 3. Statutes shall specify types of associations requiring court registration, a procedure for such registration and the forms of supervision of such associations". Analysis of the wording of Art. 58 leads to the conclusion that the Constitution guarantees freedom of association to "everyone" - not only to Polish citizens, but al-
23
so to foreigners, stateless persons and legal persons .
According to the doctrine and the judicial decisions invoked by Boguslaw
21 Resolution of the Supreme Administrative Court of 12th December 2005, case no. II OPS 4/05.
22 M. Rachwal, Demokracja bezposrednia w procesie ksztaitowania si% spoieczehstwa obywatelskiego w Polsce, Warsaw 2010, p. 38.
23 P. Suski, Stowarzyszenia i fundacje, Warsaw 2011, p. 76; B. Banaszak, M. Jablonski, in: J. Boc (ed.),
Konstytucje Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej oraz komentarz do Konstytucji RP z 1997 roku, Wroclaw 1997, p. 110.
24
Banaszak , said freedom is construed as: 1) unrestricted right to establish associations, select their legal and organizational form; 2) freedom of operation of associations, inter alia, by granting the right to determine their objectives and resources used to accomplish them; 3) voluntary membership and dissociation. The associations, i.e., their current members or representative bodies, are entitled to accept new members, in accordance with the rules set forth in the statute or rules of such association; 4) members' right to decide about the affairs of the association and to elect its governing bodies; 5) members' right to decide on dis-
25
solving the association .
Worth noting is the fact that the provisions of Art. 58 of the Polish Constitution were put more precisely in Art. 59 thereof26, whereby the Constitution guarantees the freedom of association in trade unions, socio-occupational organiza-
27
tions of farmers, and in employers' organizations. As Piotr Winczorek duly notices, the organizations listed in the discussed regulation constitute a particular type of associations referred to in Art. 58. At the same time, it needs to be emphasized that individual aspects of freedom of association are found in various provisions of the Polish Constitution, in particular, in Arts. 11, 13 and 17.
Also justified appears to be the position of Maciej Kisilowski, who claims that "(...) association in voluntary, non-governmental organizations is a freedom (liberty) of all people, who deserve it for the mere fact of being human, and not due to the social value of the third sector. Therefore, it is not the sector that should justify the objective of its existence, but it is the society that has to justify
each restriction imposed on the scope of operation of that sector (scope of free-
28
dom of association)" [own translation].
With regard to the principles decoded from the provisions of the Polish Constitution, it appears that the principle of the civil society, which was not directly
29
expressed in the 1997 Constitution, is worth particular attention . It is true that not all representatives of the constitutional law doctrine consider it to be a prin-
30
ciple of the Polish national political system , yet most legitimate appears to be the opinion of Leszek Garlicki, who explicitly includes it amongst the system
31
founding principles . According to Garlicki, "civil society is a pluralistic society, wherein every person is granted the opportunity to participate in freely selected organizations and structures for the purpose of accomplishing their sub-
24 B. Banaszak, Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Komentarz, Warsaw 2009, p. 293.
25 B. Banaszak, Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Komentarz, Warszawa 2009, s. 293.
26 W. Sokolewicz, Artykui 59, in: L. Garlicki (ed.), Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Komentarz, tom. IV, 2W7 arsaw 2005, p. 5.
27 P. Winczorek, Komentarz do Konstytucji Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 2 kwietnia 1997 roku, Warsaw 2000, p. 80.
28 M. Kisilowski, Prawo sektorapozarzqdowego. Analiza funkcjonalna, Warsaw 2009, p. 127.
29 J. Kostrubiec, Zasada spoieczehstwa obywatelskiego, in: M. Bozek, M. Karpiuk, J. Kostrubiec, K. Walczuk (eds.), Zasady ustroju politycznego panstwa, Poznan 2012, p. 203.
30 J. Kostrubiec, in: M. Bozek, M. Karpiuk, J. Kostrubiec, K. Walczuk (eds.), Zasady ustroju politycznego pahstwa, op. cit., p. 203 et seq.
31 Vide: L. Garlicki, Polskie prawo konstytucyjne. Zarys wykladu, Warsaw 2011, p. 64.
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jectivity of a citizen, employee or resident" [own translation]. Worth mentioning is the position of the Constitutional Tribunal expressed in the judgement of 27th May 2003 (case no. K 11/03), whereby "the Constitution creates premises for the functioning of a civil society, in which citizens gathered in diverse formal structures (political parties, associations, community organizations, founda-
33
tions) accomplish their objectives, thus influencing public issues" [own translation] .
III. To conclude, valid appears to be the thesis that the concept of a nongovernmental organization does have its constitutional dimension. This is not hampered by the fact that the currently applicable Constitution does not operate with the term itself. Such constitutional dimension may be approached in various manners, depending on the adopted model of relations between the idea of a non-governmental organization and that of a community organization. Nevertheless, it proves justified to assume that the constitutional provisions do shape the understanding of the concept of NGO, but not in a way which would allow adopting a uniform definition applicable throughout the entire Polish legal system. The legislators have been offered a freedom to define the idea in diverse manners in individual statutes, and they certainly use that freedom.
THE CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHT TO HEALTH PROTECTION КОНСТИТУЦИОННОЕ ПРАВО НА ОХРАНУ ЗДОРОВЬЯ
Stych Marek, PhD,
Стых Марек, канд.юр.наук, директор
Institute of Administration, Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa, Poland
Abstract
The article discusses health protection issues, in particular the right to health protection. The analysis of the issue will be based on Article 68 of the Constitution of Poland. If one considers privatisation of healthcare centres and hospitals, the topic is important especially to the citizens. It must be borne in mind that the health safety of individuals should always be treated as priority. The right to health protection has been included among the fundamental rights. The aspects covered in the paper include the legal basis and subjective scope of health protection.
Keywords: Health protection, public health, health Center
32 Vide: L. Garlicki, Polskie prawo konstytucyjne. Zarys wykladu, op. cit., p. 64; W. Sokolewicz, Artykul 12, in: L. Garlicki (ed.), Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Komentarz, tom V, Warsaw 2007, p. 10 et seq.; M. Jablonski, Spoleczenstwo obywatelskie - dylematy konstytucyjnoprawne, in: J. Blicharz, J. Boc (eds.), Prawna dzialalnosc instytucji spoleczenstwa obywatelskiego, Wroclaw 2009, p. 23 et seq.; A. Lawniczak, Spoleczenstwo obywatelskie - kilka uwag teoretycznych i konstytucyjnoprawnych, in: J. Blicharz, J. Boc (eds.), Prawna dzialalnosc instytucji spoleczenstwa obywatelskiego, Wroclaw 2009, p. 33 et seq.
33 www.otk.trybunal.gov.pl/orzeczenia/otk.htm (29-10-2015) - Judgment of the Constitutional Tribunal of 27th May 2003, case no. K 11/03.
