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7Бюллетень науки и практики /Bulletin of Science and Practice Т. 8. №7. 2022
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UDC 94 https://doi.org/10.33619/2414-2948/80/57
PEOPLE'S LIBERATION MOVEMENT IN THE NORTH CAUCASUS IN THE 30-40s OF THE XIX CENTURY
©Isgandarov V, ORCID: 0000-0001-8307-6032, Ph.D., Ganja State University, Ganja, Azerbaijan, isgandarovusal@gmail.com,
НАРОДНО-ОСВОБОДИТЕЛЬНОЕ ДВИЖЕНИЕ НА СЕВЕРНОМ КАВКАЗЕ В 30-40-Е ГГ. XIX ВЕКА
©Искендаров В. Г., ORCID: 0000-0001-8307-6032, Ph.D., Гянджинский государственный университет, г. Гянджа, Азербайджан, isgandarovusal@gmail.com
Abstract. After the assassination of Hamzat Bey, the second imam of Dagestan and Chechnya, the Russians carried out an expedition and clashed with a group of disciples led by Shamil, fearing that Shamil would aggravate the situation in Dagestan. The agreement reached between Shamil and his commanders, the spread of Sharia among the mountains, the unification of separate forces in the mountains of Dagestan and Chechnya, the fierce fighting between the parties, the loss of Russians during the marches, the influx of disciples to Shamil, operations against the local feudal lords who supported them, the Battle of Ahulgo, the fierce resistance of the tsarist forces trying to occupy the Caucasus, and the defeat of the tsarist troops were discussed. The fact that General Fezi was forced to retreat with heavy losses after his march to Dagestan in the summer of 1837 increased Shamil's prestige not only in mountainous Dagestan and Chechnya but also in the northern districts of Azerbaijan. At that time, he wrote letters to many communities, urging them to fight against tsarism. In the early 1960s, the complete subjugation of many mountainous peoples of the North Caucasus was completed. The freedom movement of the highlanders was defeated. It was by its very nature a national liberation movement against tsarism in order to preserve its independence. After the defeat of the movement led by Shamil, the Muslim population of the Caucasus protested against tsarism in various districts of Northern Azerbaijan. The pan-Caucasian uprisings towards the end of the Caucasus war affected the northern districts of Azerbaijan and the communities of southwestern Dagestan. The center of this uprising was the north-western region of Azerbaijan. The freedom of the Caucasian peoples in the study of the problem is to study the essence of the struggle. During the research, several archival materials were included in the scientific cycle for the first time.
Аннотация. После убийства Хамзат-бека, второго имама Дагестана и Чечни, русские совершили экспедицию и столкнулись с группой учеников во главе с Шамилем, опасаясь, что Шамиль обострит ситуацию в Дагестане. Обсуждаются: достигнутое соглашение между Шамилем и его командирами, распространение шариата, объединение разрозненных сил в горах Дагестана и Чечни, ожесточенные бои между сторонами, потери русских во время походов, наплыв учеников Шамиля, операции против поддерживавших их местных феодалов, битва при Ахульго, ожесточенное сопротивление царских войск, пытавшихся занять Кавказ, разгром царских войск. Тот факт, что генерал Фези был вынужден с большими потерями отступить после своего похода в Дагестан летом 1837 года, повысил авторитет Шамиля не только в горном Дагестане и Чечне, но и в северных районах Азербайджана. В то время он писал письма во многие общины, призывая их к борьбе с царизмом. В начале 1860-
Бюллетень науки и практики /Bulletin of Science and Practice Т. 8. №7. 2022
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х годов было завершено полное подчинение многих горских народов Северного Кавказа. Освободительное движение горцев потерпело поражение. По самой своей природе оно было национально-освободительным движением против царизма за сохранение своей независимости. После поражения движения под руководством Шамиля мусульманское население Кавказа выступило против царизма в различных районах Северного Азербайджана. Кавказские восстания к концу Кавказской войны затронули северные районы Азербайджана и общины юго-западного Дагестана. Центром этого восстания стал северозападный район Азербайджана. Свобода кавказских народов в изучении проблемы заключается в изучении сущности борьбы. В ходе исследования в научный цикл впервые были включены несколько архивных материалов.
Keywords: Caucasus, freedom movement, Dagestan, Azerbaijan, Russia, Shamil.
Ключевые слова: Кавказ, освободительное движение, Дагестан, Азербайджан, Россия, Шамиль.
Introduction
In the Caucasus War, the first imam, Gazi Mohammad, played a special role in the liberation movement of the peoples of the North Caucasus, in fact, it later develops all the basics of the policy, strategy, and tactics implemented by both its successors. On the one hand, it is the general war of the highlanders against the Russians, on the other hand, it is the first to adopt a dual strategy, such as negotiating from the standpoint of disturbing them with regular marches. He was also the first to expose the weaknesses of the Russians, demonstrated in practice how to use them with agile maneuvers and sudden attacks, as well as strengthened defensive positions. Most importantly, he showed his followers how important it was to take the initiative.
He consciously prepared the highlanders for a protracted war, for this he called on different peoples to unite and act for a common goal. The Imam chose a clever method to deceive the Russians by keeping his intentions secret and spreading rumors. For this reason, the first imam of the mountain liberation movement is undoubtedly a very important figure. In less than three years, he was able to accomplish many of his tasks.
Although the activities of Hamzat Bey were not as comprehensive as Gazi Mohammad, they served to create a stronger and broader base for the activities of his successor. A few days after the assassination of Hamzat Bey, Imam Shamil, who would lead the struggle of the highlanders for the next 25 years and during his time, the struggle for independence of the highlanders of Dagestan and Chechnya became more intense. The peoples of Dagestan and Chechnya have started to fight with new forces against their domestic and foreign exploiters. In the time of Shamil, a friend and comrade-in-arms of Ghazi Muhammad, who was at the forefront of this war, the struggle became more intense and violent.
Research Methods
It should be noted that the struggles of the first two imams of the freedom movement of the highlanders of the North-Eastern Caucasus, Gazi Muhammad, and Hamzat Bey, were closely connected with Azerbaijan. They were closely involved in the uprisings that took place in the northwestern region of Azerbaijan in the early 1930s. Around the close of both imams were Azerbaijanis who emigrated from Azerbaijan to Dagestan. Among them, it is enough to mention Nurmahammad from Gakh, who was killed along with Gazi Muhammad in the battle of Gimri fortress, Mullah
Бюллетень науки и практики / Bulletin of Science and Practice Т. 8. №7. 2022
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Ahmadi from Guba, as well as Ramazan from Jar-Balakan, which is under the personal protection of the second Imam Hamzat Bey. In addition, in the first stage of the liberation movement of the highlanders, many emigrants who had emigrated to Dagestan after the suppression of the Jar-Balakan uprisings of 1830-1832 were closely involved.
Fearing that the situation in the mountainous Dagestan would escalate with Shamil, who was elected the new imam after the assassination of the second Imam of Dagestan and Chechnya Hamzat Bey, the Russians launched an expedition to Khunzakh under the command of General Kluge-von-Klugenau. In mid-October 1834, the Russians, advancing from Temir-Khan-Shura, captured the communities of Akusha and Gergebil and clashed with a group of Murids led by Shamil near the village of Mochokh. The expedition was considered over with the capture of Gotsatl on November 2 [1, p. 113].
It should be noted that during the first period of Shamil's imamship, military operations between the parties were not so intense that researchers attribute this to the fact that at that time the Russians did not have much activity due to the small number of troops in Dagestan and Shamil himself, who was mainly engaged in spreading Sharia law among local communities. According to General Klugenau, the calming of Dagestan can be done in two ways: "either by convincing Shamil to live in peace or by striking a crushing blow on the highlanders". That was the time, the Russians did not have enough strength to strike a crushing blow, forcing them to focus on the first option [1, p. 115].
As a result, under an agreement reached between the Russian command and Shamil in early
1835, Shamil and his naibs formally promised to accept Russia's supreme authority, however, tsarism would allow the Sharia to spread among the highlanders, and the tsarist generals should not interfere in the internal affairs of the mountain communities [7, p. 218].
It should be noted that this situation not only gave Imam Shamil time to gather strength but also gave him a wide range of opportunities to spread the Sharia among the highlanders. The Russians almost complied with the agreement reached between the parties until the summer of
1836.
During this period, Shamil succeeds in uniting the forces of Muhammed Teletlinsky and Tashov-Haji-Endireevsky, operating separately in the mountainous part of Dagestan and Chechnya in a single center. Already in the middle of 1836, there were naibs around Shamil, such as Akhverdi Muhammad Khunzakhli, Ali bey Khunzakhli, Surkhay al-Kulavi, who were ready to unconditionally carry out every order of the imam. In a short time, Shamil took control of a significant part of Dagestan and Chechnya and began to establish his own state. He kept the division into old communities but appointed his own naib to each. In areas under Shamil's control, taxes were imposed to maintain the administration. A regular army was formed systematically subordinated to the imam's naibs [1, p. 123].
As a result of Shamil's activities, in early 1837, the communities of Koysubu and Humbet accepted the authority of the imam. Shamil, whose position was considerably strengthened, moved the center of the Imamate from the village of Gimri to Ashilta. Although his attempt to capture Khunzakh failed, he was able to subdue some auls of the Andalal community. The rebellion of the highlanders grew with each passing day. Aware of Shamil's actions, the Caucasian command began to mobilize forces, take key positions and hastily strengthen individual villages. Aware of Shamil's actions, the Caucasian command began to mobilize forces, take key positions and hastily strengthen individual villages. Strategic points in mountainous Dagestan, such as Khunzakh, Tlox, and Gidatl, are being strengthened by additional Russian forces. Meanwhile, Shamil is strengthening in the village of Teletl [4, p. 91].
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In order to prevent the further spread of Muridism, Baron Rosen considered it necessary to take decisive action against Shamil and attack Chechnya and Mountainous Dagestan. At the same time, it was decided to attack from two directions. Colonel Pullo was to oppose Tashov Haji in Zandag, and Major General Reut was to enter Mountainous Dagestan and capture Irganay. As a result of this march, the village of Zandag was destroyed, and a terrible massacre was committed against its people [8, p. 80-81].
After that, in the summer of 1837, an expedition led by Major-General Fezi was organized in Mountainous Dagestan. Dagestani rulers such as Tarki Shamkhali, Muhammad Mirza-khan Gazikumukhlu, and Ahmad khan Mehdili also took part in the Russian troops.
During this march, fierce battles took place between the parties in the villages of Gotsatl, Teletl, Ashilta, and Akhulgo. In the end, an agreement was reached between the parties, and Shamil had to hand over his nephew to the Russians as a hostage, and the Russian troops under General Fezi returned to their previous positions [4, p. 91].
Although the expedition was presented by the Russians as a successful operation, General Fezi was forced to retreat due to the disorganization of the expedition forces, large personnel losses, and a lack of ammunition. Since the beginning of the operation in Mountainous Dagestan under the leadership of General Fezi, the number of dead and wounded in its units consisted of 4 senior and 26 junior officers (including 14 company commanders) and about a thousand soldiers. Five of the 10 mountain cannons in the Russian part were destroyed [1, p. 132].
According to Gizetti's calculations, the losses of the Russians during this march were as follows: During Shamil's attempt to leave Teletl on the night of June 20, 94 were killed and 187 were wounded; At the time of the capture of Ashilta - 28 dead, 158 wounded; During the capture of Akhulgo — 8 dead, 15 wounded; In the battles of June 27-28-33 dead, 134 wounded; During the Teletl attack - 92 dead, 256 wounded. In addition, when General Fezi moved to Ashilta on June 17, it was reported that 5 wounded and 55 patients remained in Khunzakh. A total of 255 people were killed and 810 were wounded [2, p. 38].
The retreat of General Fezi with his troops was seen as a clear defeat of the tsarist army in the mountains. Murids began to flock to Shamil, who had taken a position in the village of Chirkat, from all sides. From here, Shamil appealed to all communities by sending letters. Shamil had great military talent, organizational skills, endurance, perseverance, and the ability to choose assistants at the right time to strike and carry out his intentions. Distinguished by his strong and unwavering will, Shamil was able to inspire the highlanders to self-sacrifice and submission to his authority. In the second half of the 1930s, he was able to carry out successful operations against the Russians and the local feudal lords who supported them. Using guerrilla warfare tactics, he attacked the garrisons of Russian fortresses on the left flank and in the center of the Caucasus line. The strength of the highlanders was in their tactics of battle. Their small detachments were constantly and courageously marching from the mountain auls to the plains. They set up an ambush against the suddenly moving Russian troops and attacked the Russian defense fortifications with lightning speed.
In order to prevent the growing general uprising of the highlanders, the command of the tsar's army decided to strike a decisive blow to Shamil. For this purpose, two large expeditions were prepared in the spring of 1839: one was intended to "pacify" Mountainous Dagestan, and the other, under the command of General Grabbe, was directed directly against Shamil, the center of the Imamate, its main stronghold, Akhulgo. In accordance with the decision taken at the meeting of scholars and naibs convened by Shamil to discuss the situation and take the necessary measures, trenches, defensive towers, and ditches were built around Akhulgo, making it an impregnable fortress [4, p. 92].
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In a letter dated 18 April 1839 to the Prime Minister and Foreign Minister of France, Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult, the head of the office of the French Consulate in Tbilisi (Georgia), Eme Rivuar, stated that everything was now ready for an expedition against the highlanders. In total, three army corps of twenty thousand people will move simultaneously from three directions. The campaign will start by the end of May. I will inform you about the results of the operations [5, p. 12-13].
The glorious 80-day defense of Akhulgo, which lasted from June 24 to September 11, 1839, has a special place in the history of the Caucasus War as a whole. At that time, the local population of Akhulgo, which was much smaller than the Russians, was defended against the Russian forces under General Grabbe by more than 10,000 men, and for about three months under constant Russian artillery fire. Defending himself in Akhulgo, Shamil decided to wait for the approach of the Chechen detachment under the leadership of Tashov Haji. However, the Russian command, aware of this plan, took serious measures to prevent their unification.
During this period, the Russians repeatedly tried to capture Akhulgo, but each time they were repulsed by the murids with heavy losses. Even women took part in the battles. Over time, the situation of the defenders of Akhulgo worsened, food and ammunition ran out, and a smallpox epidemic began in the village. In such a situation, after fierce battles on August 17, 1839, the tsarist troops were able to capture part of the fortifications after destroying them with artillery fire [1, p. 151-156].
In order to save the lives of the villagers, Shamil offered talks to Grabbe, during which time there were several attempts to negotiate between the parties. But each time these attempts failed. The Russians demanded that Shamil's eldest son, 8-year-old Jamaladdin, be extradited, but in return promised to allow the Akhulgo defenders to leave the village. Once this demand is met, the Russians will not take the siege of Akhulgo in accordance with the negotiations. Seeing that he has been deceived, Shamil decides to fight to the last breath.
The last and decisive attack on Akhulgo took place on September 2. At that time, Shamil and his closest people had crossed a steep place, which the Russians did not expect, and left the village for Ichkeria. According to Russian sources, local militias helped Shamil escape the siege. In Akhulgo itself, the murids, who had been hiding in different places until September 11, continued the resistance. The Battle of Akhulgo is very costly for the Russians. According to Gizetti, during the 80-day defense of Akhulgo, 26 Russian officers and 554 privates were killed, 124 officers and 2365 privates were wounded [2, p. 48].
In fact, the losses suffered by the Russians at this time were enormous. This can be clearly seen when considering the information provided by another Russian source. Georgian historian G. Mamulia writes that in the summer of 1839, despite the heroic resistance of the highlanders in the ongoing battles during the siege of Akhulgo (women and children participated in the defense of the village), Akhulgo was captured by Russian troops. Mamulia writes that according to official data, the losses of the Russian army during this period were as follows: 500 people from the Russian units were killed, 1722 people were wounded, and 694 people were contused. 117 officers were out of order. There is no exact information about the losses of the highlanders [5, p. 24].
However, it should be noted that only the losses suffered by Shamil's family in Akhulgo allow us to imagine, at least a little, the scale of the horrors of this battle. As a result of this battle, Shamil lost his wife Djavarat, his young son Said, his uncle Bartikhan and his only sister Fatima [6, p. 8081]. Shamil's best comrades-in-arms were also killed in these battles. Knowing the area perfectly, Shamil was able to get out of the siege and soon resumed fighting.
In late 1840, Shamil used the Chechen revolt against the Russians to liberate all of Chechnya, and in the spring of 1842, he defeated Russian troops during an expedition against his residence in
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the village of Dargo. At the end of 1843, he destroyed the main Russian garrisons in Mountainous Dagestan. The peak of Shamil's power, 1843-1847, was a time when almost all of Mountainous Dagestan and Chechnya united under their banner. At that time, the establishment of the main state structures of the North Caucasus Imamate, a theocratic state based on Sharia principles, was completed [5, p. 81].
During these years, the Russians have suffered numerous losses in the battles against the highlanders. In May-June 1842, during an expedition of Russian troops to Ichkeria under the command of General Grabbe, 524 people, including 9 Russian officers, were killed and 1336 people, including 57 officers, were wounded [1, p. 60].
In May 1842, during the Amir-Adji-Yurt operation alone, two generals, 66 officers, and about 2,000 soldiers from the Russian units under General Grabbe were killed and wounded [4, p. 97].
During the march to the Avar khanate led by Shamil from late August to late September 1843, battles took place near the villages of Untsukul, Balakhani, Moksokh, Akhalchi, Gotsatl, Tsatanikh, Kharakhi, Rugudzha, and Oboda. In total, 30 Russian officers and 1,176 soldiers were killed, 20 officers and 414 soldiers were wounded, 17 officers and 365 soldiers were captured by the murids [2, p. 62-65]. Gammer writes that Shamil captured and destroyed all Russian fortifications in Mountainous Dagestan within 24 days, except for Khunzakh. Russia's casualties were 2064 people, including 65 officers and 14 artillery pieces [1, p. 205].
In 1843, most of the tsar's troops stationed in various fortifications were destroyed. Highlanders seized 6 fortifications, 12 cannons, 400 shells, and 250 thousand cartridges [7, p. 231]. It is noted that one of the main reasons for Shamil's success in 1843 was that he began to use cannons. Although some of these cannons were seized from the Russians as booty, at that time the murids themselves s had learned to make cannons.
In order to make up for the failure in Dagestan in 1843, the Caucasian command decided to strike the center of Shamil's Imamate the following year. For this purpose, an expedition to Dargo is being prepared under the leadership of the new commander-in-chief, Count M. S. Vorontsov. The Tsar demanded from Count M. S. Vorontsov, the new commander-in-chief of the Caucasian armies, "to dismantle Shamil's armies, to enter the center of his rule and to strengthen it there" [7, p. 231]. Political means were also used to fight Shamil. 45,000 rubles were allocated from the treasury to seize his closest comrades-in-arms [1, p. 213].
Although the Russians were able to capture the capital of Shamil during the Dargo expedition, the imam besieged the Russian troops, blocking their way from behind, and inflicting a crushing blow on them in a number of battles. Despite the general superiority of the forces, Vorontsov can only escape complete destruction by chance.
During the expedition to Dargo, the capital of the Shamil Imamate, which lasted from early June to the end of July 1845 under the leadership of the Caucasian Viceroy M.S. Vorontsov 41 officers and 1,017 soldiers were killed, 175 officers and 2,576 soldiers were wounded, and 1 officer and 57 soldiers were taken, prisoner. Among those killed were high-ranking commanders such as Major General Passek, Major General Viktorov, Major General Fok, and Colonel Zavaliyevsky [2, p. 74-77]. More than 400 Russians were killed and wounded in clashes near the village of Teletl in July of that year [2, p. 78].
Results
After this victory, Shamil tried to expand the base of the uprising by spreading it to the Central Caucasus. By that time, the Imamate, which covered the lands of the former Avar Khanate and neighboring rural communities (Koisubu, Salatav, Gumbet), as well as mountainous Chechnya,
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had reached the peak of its power. Shamil's residence was consecutively Akhulgo (1835-1839), Dargo (1840-1845), and Vedeno (1845-1859). In addition to the advisory board — the Divankhana, the councils of naibs and ulema also met periodically to discuss current policy issues. Divankhana was also called the State Council. Researcher Y. U. Dadayev notes that the composition of the State Council itself was international. Among the members of the State Council, in addition to Avars, Chechens, and Laks, at different times there were Kumyks, Dargins, Lezgins, Ingush, Kabardians, Nogais, Azerbaijanis, Rutuls, and representatives of other nations [3, p. 385].
The territory of the Imamate was divided into naibs, whose leaders (naibs) commanded the murid units, and, in some cases, mercenaries (a total of 300 to 1000 people) gathered from the local population. The number of naibs ranged from 20 to 50 at various times. There were also larger administrative units created by the merger of several naibs [2, p. 21]. According to some reports, at different times the number of naibs was about 152. During its heyday, the Imamate covered an area of about 900 versts [4, p. 100-101].
At its most powerful time, the imamate was able to gather up to 30,000 troops (excluding murids and mercenaries) on the principle of 1 out of 10 houses equipped with cavalry. The revenues of the Imamate's treasury consisted of taxes, fines, confiscated property of criminals and traitors, and were mainly used to maintain the armed forces [5, p. 21].
Conclusion
The siege of the village of Salti in August-September 1847 also cost the Russians many losses. For this march, the Russians gathered 10,000 troops, including eight infantry battalions, two sniper routes, a dragon squadron, two hundred Cossacks, a local detachment of 1500 men (infantry and cavalry), 15 cannons (three heavy weapons), tower cannons, a fortification route, and an engineering platoon [1, p. 259]. During this period, 20 officers and 515 soldiers from the Russian units were killed, 95 officers and 1793 soldiers were wounded [2, p. 84-85].
The tsarism, which stubbornly tried to penetrate the mountains, met with serious resistance. In 1847, Vorontsov entered Avariya, besieged Gergebil, but was forced to retreat after an unsuccessful, extremely bloody attack. The battle near the fortified village of Chokh, in 1849, also ended with the defeat of the tsarist troops.
After the defeat of Dargo, the tsarist command made serious changes in the tactics of the war against the highlanders, drawing serious conclusions from the beginning of the 1850s. Now they are advancing slowly but systematically with the siege of one aul after another, the destruction of crops, and the deforestation. The occupied territories were strengthened methodically. Such an attack was carried out primarily in Chechnya, the imam's granary. The implementation of this tactic has yielded slow but noticeable results. Tsarist troops were destroying Chechen villages. Tsarism slowly but persistently began to push the Chechens into the mountains. Deprived of orchards, fields, pastures, and herds, the highlanders gradually lost their strength in this struggle. The highlanders were tired of the long and destructive war that caused great human and material losses.
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Бюллетень науки и практики /Bulletin of Science and Practice https ://www.bulletennauki.ru
Т. 8. №7. 2022 https://doi.org/10.33619/2414-2948/80
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Работа поступила в редакцию 26.05.2022 г.
Принята к публикации 30.05.2022 г.
Ссылка для цитирования:
Isgandarov V. People's Liberation Movement in the North Caucasus in the 30-40s of the XIX Century // Бюллетень науки и практики. 2022. Т. 8. №7. С. 532-540. https://doi.org/10.33619/2414-2948/80/57
Cite as (APA):
Isgandarov, V. (2022). People's Liberation Movement in the North Caucasus in the 30-40s of the XIX Century. Bulletin of Science and Practice, 8(7), 532-540. https://doi.org/10.33619/2414-2948/80/57
