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33
Original scientific paper
UDK: 37.018.1 316.362
doi: 10.23947/2334-8496-2022-10-1-01-14
Received: February, 21.2022. Revised: March, 17.2022. Accepted: April, 04.2022.
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Parental Involvement in Education and Collaboration with School
Tatjana B. Milosavljevic Dukic1" , Dragana S. Bogavac? , Aleksandar M. Stojadinovic1 , Petar D. Rajcevic3
'University of Nis, Pedagogical Faculty, Vranje, Serbia, e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] 2University of Belgrade, Teacher Training Faculty, Belgrade, Serbia, e-mail: [email protected] 3University of University of Pristina temporarily settled in Kosovska Mitrovica, Teacher Training Faculty, Leposavic, Serbia,
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: This paper presents the results of the research which was aimed to examine the connection between the collaboration between family and school, and parental involvement in education. The sample included 198 parents of senior primary school students in South-Eastern Serbia. For the purposes of the research, a Questionnaire was designed which consisted of 30 items, grouped into two parts: the first part deals with forms of family and school cooperation, and the second focuses on parents' perception of educational techniques. Chi-square test shows that the most common form of parental cooperation with school is parent meeting, and that mothers are more engaged than fathers when it comes to parent meetings and lectures for parents. Based on parents' assessments of education techniques, understanding and support is the education technique that dominates parental involvement in children's education, while high level of control had a lower score. There were differences observed in parents' assessments of education techniques analysed by t-test, where more withdrawal from children, as well as less control in are shown more by fathers than by mothers. Examination of the predictive properties of independent variables was tested using linear regression. The obtained research results on the impact of certain forms of cooperation with school on parental involvement in education have shown that lectures for parents and conversations at the initiative of the class teacher are predictors in creating desirable patterns of parental behaviour by granting children the right to their opinion. Gaining empirical insight into the mentioned relations benefits future research and practice of education efforts of the family and school.
Keywords: parents' education techniques, forms of cooperation between family and school, parent, child.
Family, as the main biosocial community, and school, the environment of cognitive, social and affective context, represent the field where parents and teachers work on the development and formation of the child's personality. Family is a living and social environment and is considered a reference framework in which the child acquires the first experiences that form the starting point for the overall development of an individual. In addition to family, school as an educational environment is also a sphere of influence that seeks to achieve defined outcomes of development and academic achievement of students. School is where education takes place and family is not excluded from it. The cooperation established between the family and the school can benefit both sides, in different ways, to meet their roles by improving the general school climate, providing support for family development and parenting skills by improving teachers' work (Epstein, 2018; Milak, 2020).
Parents 'education styles imply the application of various education techniques that shape parents' behaviour towards children. Most authors highlight two main types of parental education techniques: parental warmth and parental supervision/control (Piorkowska-Petrovic, 1990; Baumrind and Thompson, 2002; Obradovic and Cudina-Obradovic, 2003; Tokic, 2008; Kerestes et al., 2012; Zukovic, Ninkovic and Krstic, 2015; Pavicevic and Stojijkovic, 2016; Bogavac and Milosavljevic Dukic, 2017; Milosavljevic Dukic and Bogavac, 2017; Matejevic and Dordevic, 2019; Rothenberg et al., 2020). The combination of these dimensions of parenting allows to distinguish four parenting styles: authoritative parenting style (support and respect, but also setting clear boundaries of behavior), authoritarian parenting style (high level of supervision and control), compliant parenting style (high level of warmth and love, but supervision is very low) and indifferent parenting style (parents do not show interest in the child, marked by a low level of
'Corresponding author: [email protected]
© 2022 by the authors. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.Org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Introduction
love and supervision) (Maccoby and Martin, 1983; Baumrind, 1966; 1991). Within the above-mentioned education styles, by choosing certain education techniques, parents establish patterns of behaviour by which they try to achieve interaction among family members. In order to better understand the parent-child relationship within a particular parenting style, some researchers use three bipolar dimensions: warmth and rejection; structure and chaos; support for autonomy and coercion (Addo, Aslund and Nilsson, 2017). In order to achieve education goals, parents choose education techniques within different styles of parenting- emotions and control. Parental behaviour within the emotion dimension moves in the direction of the bipolar concept of parental acceptance - rejection, which means that on the one hand there is parental acceptance (warmth and emotionality), and on the other parental rejection (absence of warmth and emotionality). The dimension of control refers to the actions that parents use to influence and modify the child's behaviour. This dimension is also bipolar, because at one end there are parents whose control over the child's behaviour is firm, and at the other end there are those parents who have poor control over the child's behaviour (Macuka, 2007). Parents' education techniques gradually change with the change of the child's developmental needs, while the emotional relationship remains constant.
Branching from the concept of parental acceptance, which is the basis for successful education, parenting styles are formed by parents applying education techniques with the aim of understanding and supporting the children's right to have their own opinion. Parental education styles that rely on parental rejection may over time have negative implications on the child's personality development. In this case, school should raise parents' awareness and guide them to relinquish excessive and insufficient control, excessive child protection, distrust of the child, disinterest and withdrawal from the child (Dedaj, 2020). The result of school activities in which the emphasis is on parental involvement and cooperation is the development of pedagogical competence of parents in choosing those education techniques through which they can achieve emotional exchange with the child, authoritative attitude, monitoring and adequate supervision of child activities and quality communication, creating a general emotional climate for constructive parenting. Pedagogical competence of parents is understood as the experience of an individual, an adult, who has control over parenthood and feels good in the role of parent (Malcic, Maric-Jurisin and Klemenovic, 2021). Modern strategies of cooperation between family and school include the creation of education techniques used by parents and the improvement of parents' skills, because the education techniques used by parents and strategies used by teachers in the classroom are often not in synergy. It is important that both parties understand differences of opinion and support each other in achieving a common goal - the education of children (Graham-Clay, 2005).
Parents' education techniques gain greater strength and power in education in the context of cooperation between family and school, and are related to the establishment and sustainment of communication, which is much more than a simple exchange of information (Jelic and Stojkovic, 2021). Cooperation between family and school implies the participation of parents in school activities through various forms of individual and group cooperation. The goal of cooperation between family and school is to align the opinions, activities and measures that teachers and parents take towards the child in order to improve academic success, or addressing cognitive or education-related issues (Andjelkovic, Stanisavljevic Petrovic and Vracar, 2015). Epstein's views cooperation between family and school (Epstein, 1996) through the approach of "school-family partnership", which emphasizes the importance of greater involvement and participation of parents in school activities with emphasis on their partnership role in the education process (Epstein, 1992; 2016; Farrell and Jones, 2000). Starting from the theory of overlapping spheres of influence, Epstein (Epstein, 1996) puts special emphasis on the operationalization of six types of parental involvement: 1. Parenthood; 2. Communication; 3. Parents volunteering at school; 4. Learning at home; 5. Decision making; 6. Cooperation with the community, as a basis for effective partnership (Epstein, 1996; Polovina, 2018). These aspects of family involvement are possible through mutual communication and involvement of parents in school activities. Acquired parental competencies through school activities contribute to the development of parenting abilities and skills and involvement in child's education. Previous research on parental involvement in school activities with the aim of building a partnership system is focused mainly on analysing forms of cooperation between family and school through parent meetings, monitoring children's progress by teachers informing parents, helping them progress and achieve in school, lectures for parents, written communication, parents' visits to school, open days, doing certain tasks at school, etc. (Stevenson and Baker, 1987; Pianta and Steinberg, 1992; Steinberg et al., 1992; Epstein et al., 2002; Matejevic and Jovanovic, 2017; Toblova, Ferkova and Poliakova, 2020; Veljkovic, 2021). The results of the research indicate that the cooperation between family and school is traditional because it is mainly related to parent-teacher meetings and informative conversations, which are forms of cooperation that do not involve parents in decision-making in schools (Omerdic and Ridic, 2017).
Not all parents feel equally confident in their ability to engage in different forms of involvement (Park and Holloway, 2018). In order to establish effective cooperation between parents and school, it is important to trust parents and provide support in guiding children in the education process, so that they themselves can develop trust in school (Popovic and Zukovic, 2014). Forms of school practice that enable active involvement of parents are related to providing assistance to parents in developing parenting skills and creating a family environment to encourage effective forms of communication and support to parents in making decisions regarding the choice of education techniques, and respecting their opinion at the same time (Zukovic, 2013; Park and Holloway, 2018).
Furthermore, the modern approach to the integrated model of family and school partnership, Inakov views through motivation, communication, cognitive and reflective model (Inakov, 2021). This author highlights the directions of integration of family and school cooperation, the criteria and indicators for assessing the effectiveness of pedagogical support for family-school integration, as well as the development of social competence in students through cooperation. In addition to material, components of family-school partnership, criteria and indicators for assessing the effectiveness of pedagogical support, it is necessary that teachers develop an individual concept of which includes cooperative competencies on top of their professional competencies, in order to ensure pedagogical support to family-school integration (Grofcikova, Mendelova and Zelena, 2019). The success of family and school cooperation is reflected in the awareness of both parties that the quality of cooperation will depend on mutual interest, engagement and efforts to achieve reciprocity (sharing knowledge, responsibilities and power) (Polovina, 2018). In that sense, the school should provide support to the family in raising children through activities to improve parenting skills, which increases the importance of the educational role of teachers in working with parents.
While there seem to be various theoretical and empirical studies on the importance of family-school cooperation, few studies speak of the interdependence of family-school cooperation and parents' education practices. Overcoming the shortcomings of previous theoretical and empirical approaches is possible with research based on the analysed issues, because by becoming aware of their actions and self-assessment of their pedagogical competence, parents change their attitudes, behaviours and values, and they start viewing their involvement in children's education and upbringing as a challenge. Starting from theoretical analysis of the parents' experience of their competencies in the light of changes that characterize modern society and challenging tasks set before parents, an important issue is the cooperation between school and parents and how it affects the creation of parents' education-oriented practices (Maric, 2020). For this reason, there is a need to map and examine the level of parental competencies, which could then be translated into education programs, with the aim of motivating parents to perform parental roles and be happy with it (Malcic, Jurisin and Klemenovic, 2021).
Materials and Methods
The main goal of this research was to examine the connection between collaboration between family and school, and parental involvement in education. The operationalization of this goal was done through the following tasks:
1. Examine the extent to which parents are involved in various forms of cooperation with school;
2. Examine the difference between mothers and fathers in regards to the use of certain education-focused actions taken by parents by measuring eight aspects of it (understanding and support, high levels of control, disinterested parents, excessive protection, the child has the right to his opinion, distrust of the child, withdrawal from the child and low level of control); and
3. Examine the effects of certain forms of collaboration between parents and school on parental involvement in education, where certain differences were observed in particular scores, and the effects were tested separately for the sample of mothers and separately for the sample of fathers.
In this research, the main hypothesis was set as follows: There is a statistically significant connection between certain forms of cooperation between family and school and parental involvement in education.
The following auxiliary hypotheses were set:
h1: The most common forms of collaboration between parents and school are Parent-teacher meetings and conversations at the initiative of the class teacher;
h2: There is a statistically significant difference between mothers and fathers in their opinion of what constitutes parental involvement in education, primarily understanding and support, as well as high levels of control (measured through eight aspects) in favour of mothers;
h3: Forms of cooperation with school: parent-teacher meetings, lectures for parents and individual conversations at the initiative of the class teacher are predictors of parental involvement in education of
their children, more precisely, understanding and support, and the child has the right to his opinion.
The research was conducted in a sample of parents of senior primary school students in the southeast Serbia. The sample is completely balanced when it comes to gender. A total of 198 participants took part in the research (mothers, N = 99 and fathers, N = 99). Parents' level of involvement in education was examined with a questionnaire designed for the purposes of this research. The questionnaire consists of 30 items, which are grouped into two sections, where the participants were asked to specify their level of agreement on the five-point Likert-type scale (1 = completely agree, 2 = agree, 3 = undecided, 4 = disagree, 5 = completely disagree). The first part contains the items that refer to forms of cooperation between family and school: parent-teacher meetings, lectures for parents, scheduled individual interviews, scheduled one-on-one conversations at parents' initiative, one-on-one conversations at the initiative of the class teacher, conversation with the school pedagogue, talking to a school psychologist, getting involved in the Parents' Council, taking part in certain school activities, exchanging written notes with the class teacher. The second part focuses on parents' perception of education techniques and practices, where items were actually the 8 subscales of the questionnaire: understanding and support, high levels of control, disinterested parents, high levels of protection, the child has the right to his opinion, distrust of the children, withdrawal from the child and low level of control, whose scores also range from 1 to 5. The reliability of the questionnaire was tested with Cronbach's alpha coefficient. The questionnaire shows excellent reliability (Cronbach's alpha = 0.875).
In this research, statistical analysis of data was done in the statistical package SPSS ver. 24 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) for Windows, with the following statistical measures and procedures: to describe the important parameters depending on their nature, frequencies and percentages, and arithmetic mean with the corresponding standard deviation were used. The Chi-Square test and the t - test for large independent samples were used to test for differences. Analysis of predictive properties of independent variables was tested using linear regression. Independent variables are coded as dummy variables (1 = yes, 0 = no). The probability level was set at p<0.05.
Results
The first research task was to examine the extent to which parents are involved in various forms of cooperation with school. The differences were analysed by the Chi-Square test. The involvement of parents in various forms of cooperation with school is shown in Table 1. The results of the research show that parents mostly see parent-teacher meetings as a form of cooperation with school (93.4%), while lectures for parents are seen as a type of collaboration in a much smaller percentage (34.3%). The following forms of cooperation have an unjustifiably low score: scheduled one-on-one conversations at parents' initiative (33.8%); conversation with the school pedagogue (26.3%); scheduled individual interviews (24.2%); and one-on-one conversations at the initiative of the class teacher (23.7%). A small percentage of parents are ready to: talk to a school psychologist (19.7%); get involved in the Parents' Council (12.1%); as well as to exchange written notes with the class teacher (8.6%). Parents' involvement in school by taking part in certain school activities in order to cooperate with the school is the least acceptable form of cooperation (7.1%).
Variables that showed a statistically significant difference between fathers and mothers in their level of participation in various forms of cooperation with school are parent-teacher meetings and lectures for parents. The participation of mothers in parent-teacher meetings is high (99.0%) compared to fathers (87.9%) (p=0.01). Twice as many mothers (45.5%) attend lectures for parents compared to fathers (23.2%) (p=0.01).
The results of this research show that parent-teacher meetings are the most frequent forms of cooperation between family and school. Identified forms of cooperation which mothers and fathers view differently are parent-teacher meetings and lectures for parents. Moreover, the results show that mothers are more engaged than fathers when it comes to parent-teacher meetings and lectures for parents.
Table 1
Parents' participation (fathers and mothers) in various forms of cooperation with school
PARENTS
(mothers and mothers fathers
fathers) P
N % N % N %
Parerit-teacher meetings NO 13 6.6% 1 1.0% 12 12.1%
YES 185 93.4% 08 99.0% 87 87.0% 0.010
Lectures for parents NO 130 55.7% 54 54.5% 76 76.3%
YES 03 34.3% 45 45.5% 23 23.2% 0.010
Scheduled one-on-orre conversations NO 150 75.8% 71 71.7% 79 79.3%
YES 43 24.2% 28 28.3% 20 20.2% 0.185
Scheduled one-on-one conversations at parents' NO 131 56.2% 60 50.6% 71 71.7% 0.099
initiative YES 07 33.8% 39 39.4% 28 28.3%
One-on-one conversations at the initiative of ttie NO 151 76.3% 72 72 7% 79 79.3%
class teacher YES 47 23.7% 27 27.3% 20 20.2% 0.242
Conversation with the school pedagogue NO 140 73.7% 68 58.7% 78 78.3%
YES 52 26.3% 31 31.3% 21 21.2% 0.105
Conversation with the school psychologist NO 159 80.3% 76 76.8% 83 83.3% 0.211
YES 39 19.7% 23 23.2% 16 16.2%
Involvement in the Parents' Council NO 174 87.9% S3 83.8% 91 91.0% 0.082
YES 24 12 1% 16 16.2% 8 8.1%
Taking part in certain school activities NO 184 92.9% 01 91.9% 93 93.0% 0.579
YES 14 7.1% 8 8.1% 6 6.1%
Exchange written notes with the class teacher NO 181 91.4% 01 91.9% 90 90.0% 0.300
YES 17 8.6% 8 8.1% 9 9.1%
Abbreviations: N=number of participants, % = percentage; The Chi-Square Test was conducted.
The second research task was to examine the differences between mothers and fathers in their use of certain education techniques and practices. Parental involvement in education was measured through eight aspects: understanding and support, high levels of control, disinterested parents, high levels of protection, the child has the right to his opinion, distrust of the child, withdrawal from the child and low level of control, and are shown in Table 2. Understanding and support are the most frequent education-oriented activities that parents turn to (1.46 ± 0.42). Parents highlighted that they are often distrustful of children (2.17 ± 0.66), but they also advocate the view that the child has the right to his/her opinion (2.26 ± 0.82). High levels of protection (2.90 ± 0.78), high levels of control (3.48 ± 0.67) and low level of control (3.58 ± 0.86) are seen as types of parents' characteristics which distinguish these parents from those who care too much, those who like to control children and those who are not interested in working with children. The obtained research results indicate the presence of lack of interest (3.73 ± 0.74) and withdrawal from the child (3.91 ± 0.59) as actions which parents turn to in certain situations.
Differences between mothers and fathers in regards to the use of certain education-focused actions taken were examined. Variables that have proven to be statistically significant in the analysis of the perception of parents' education-focused actions are withdrawal from the child and low level of control. Fathers tend to give up on working with children more often (3.82 ± 0.60) than mothers (4.01 ± 0.56), p = 0.05. Fathers also show lower levels of control (3.45 ± 0.88) when learning with children compared to mothers (3.71 ± 0.84), p = 0.05.
The research results show that parents' assessments of education practices indicate that within the affective dimension, understanding and support is the education technique that parents mostly use when working with children. Regarding the dimension of control, the results show that excessive control had a lower score, with parents' assessments that they are often distrustful of children, but also the view that the child has the right to his opinion. Greater withdrawal from children, as well as lower level of control is more frequent in fathers than mothers.
Table 2
The aspects of parents' education-focused actions
PARENTS
(mothers and Mothers Fathers P
fathers)
Understanding and support 146±0.42 143 ±0.41 1 51 ±0 43 Ü.213
High levels of control 348±067 3 52±0 66 3.44±0.67 D.395
Disinterested parents 3.73±0.74 3.76±0.74 3 71±0 75 Ü.E00
High levels of protection 2 90±0 78 2.94 ±0.79 2.8S±0.78 D.512
The child has the right to his opinion 2.26±0.82 2.24±0.77 2.29±0.88 0.713
Distrust of children 2 17±0 66 2.20 ±0.67 215±0 65 0.551
Withdrawal from the child 3.91±0.59 4.01±0.56 3.32±0.6Q 0.050
Low level of control 3 58±0 86 3-71 ±0.84 3.45±0.88 0.050
Mean ± standard deviation is shown; Differences were tested with the t-test for large independent samples.
Within the third research task, the effects of certain forms of cooperation between parents and school on parental involvement in education were examined. For the purposes better visibility of differences in individual scores, the effect was tested separately in the sample of mothers and the sample of fathers. Some forms of family cooperation with the school are coded as dummy variables (1 = cooperated, 0 = did not cooperate).
The results of this research that aimed to investigate the impact of forms of cooperation with school on mothers' involvement in education of their children are shown in Table 3. The research findings show that the identified forms of cooperation between mothers and the school: one-on-one conversations on personal initiative, conversations with the school pedagogue and attendance at lectures for parents are predictors of the observed aspects of mothers' involvement in education such as: high levels of control, the child has the right to his opinion, and withdrawal from the child. Mothers' involvement in education that is characterized by high levels of control is the result of one-on-one conversations on personal initiative (P=0.295, 95% CI: 0.084-0.711), p=0.014) and conversations with the school pedagogue (p=0.294, 95% CI: (0.042-0.794), p=0.030) as a form of cooperation with school. Mothers who have one-on-one conversations on their own initiative and who accept conversations with the school pedagogue have higher scores for high levels of control. The obtained statistical result implies that mothers under the influence of these predictors abandon excessive control and become more ready to raise a child with greater flexibility and lower level of control. Mothers' involvement in education characterized by allowing the child to have the right to his opinion is influenced by lectures for parents as the form of cooperation with school (P=-0.263, 95% CI: (-0.773--0.038), p=0.031). Namely, mothers who attend lectures for parents have lower scores on the dimension that refers to the right of the child to have his/her opinion. Mothers believe that this form of cooperation is important because it provides help in informing and raising the awareness of parents about the need to exercise the child's right to their own opinion. Mothers' withdrawal from the child is influenced by one-on-one conversations on personal initiative (P= -0.329, 95% CI: (0.1040.652), p=0.007). Mothers who have one-on-one conversations on their own initiative have lower scores for the withdrawal from the child. Withdrawal from the child can occur in situations when the parent fails to provide structure and guidance in education. Under the influence of a separate predictor, mothers show a willingness to recognize mistakes they made and to structure the environment for raising a child, respecting his opinion.
Results of the research showed that mothers embrace a democratic education style (the child has the right to his opinion), but there are also education techniques that indicate excessive care (high level of control), and even disinterest in the child (withdrawal from the child). Organized lectures for parents, conversation at parents' initiative and conversation with the school pedagogue proved to be predictor variables in creating desirable patterns of behaviour necessary for developing mothers' awareness of the importance of parenting.
school
Table 3
Prediction of the type of mothers' involvement in child's education based on their cooperation with
Involvement in education
Cooperation with school:
Understanding and support
High levels of control
Parent-teacher meetings
0.08( 0.55-1.18), p=0.470
T0.O1(-1.34-1.2D),p=O.911
Lectures for parents
-0.03(-0.23-0.18), p-0.810
0.11 (-0.14-0.45). p-0.303
scheduled one-on^ne conversations
0.08( 0.15-0.30), p=0.500
-0.05( 0.40-0.24), p=D.S41
scheduled one-on-one conversations at parents' initiative
-0 10(-Q 30-0 13), p-0.440
0.29(0.08-0 71), p=0.014
cne-on-one conversations at the initiative of the class teacher
-0-09(-Q-30-0.14), p=0.460 0.01(-0.31-0.32), p=0.973
conversation with the school pedagogue conversation with the school psychologist
-0.16( 0.40-0.12), p=0.280 0.29(0.04-0.79), p=0.D3D 0-11(-0.17-0.39), p=0.440 0.01(-0.40-0.41), p=0.973
involvement in the Parents' Council
0.01(^0:25-0.26). p=0.960 -0.07( 0.51-0.24), p=0.472
taking part in certain school activities
-0.03(-0.43-0 33), p=0.790 -0 03(-0 63-0.4B), p=0.782
exchanging written notes with the ciass teacher
-O.05fc0.43-0.2B), p=0.680 -0.04(-0.63-0.4D). p=0.S59
Involvement in education
Cooperation with school:
Lack of interest High levels of protection
Parent-teacher meetings
-0.01 (-1.60-1 34), p^0.862 -0.01(-1.66-1.50), p^0.925
Lectures for parents
0.10(-0.19-0 49), p=0.384 0.15(-0.13-0.62), p=0.205
scheduled one-on-one conversations
-0.15fc0.62-0.12), p=0.190 0.14fc0.16-0.66). p=0.232
scheduled one-on-one conversations al parents' initiative
0.19( 0.07-0 65), p=0.116 -0.01 (-0.40-0.37), p=0.944
one-on-one conversations at the initiative of the class teacher
-0.17(-0.66-0 08), p=0.123 -0 06(-0.51-0.27), p=0.553
conversation with the school pedagogue
0.24fc0.05-0 82), p=0.082 0.21(-0.10-0.83), p=0.130
conversation with the school psychology!
-0.11(-0.68-0.27), p=0.397 -0.03(-Q.58-0.44), p=0.797
involvement in the Parents' Council
-0.01 (-0.47-0 40), p=0.873 0.01(-0.43-0.50), p=0.878
taking part in certain school activities
0.15( 105-0 24), p=0.216 0.12( 0.34-1.05), p=0.315
exchanging written notes with the class teacher
-0.11 (-0.91-0 29), p=0.305 -0.08( 0.88-0.41). p=0.472
Involvement in education
Cooperation with school:
Child has the right to his/her own opinion
Distrust of children
Parent-teacher meetings
-0.06( 2.03-1.09), p=0.S55
0.08( 0.78-1.91), p=0.407
Lectures for parents
-0.26(-0 77-0.03), p=0.031
0.22(-0.03-0.61), p-0.074
scheduled one-or-one conversations
-0.12(-0.61-0.18), p=0.292
-0.10(0.51-0.19), p=0.367
scheduled one-or-one conversations at parents' Initiative
-0.05(-0.46-0 30), p-0.669
0.02(-0.2S-0 37), p-0.821
one-or-one conversations at the initiative of the class teacher
-0-05(-Q-49-0.29), p=0.611 0.06(-0.23-0.44), p=0.550
conversation with the school pedagogue
-0.01( 0.48-0.44), p=0.931 0.21( 0.08-0.71), p=0.126
conversation with the school psychologist
0-22(-0-10-0.90), p=0.119 -0.02(-0.47-0.39), p=0.B55
involvement in the Parents' Council
0.05(-0.35-0.58), p=0.626 -0.05(-0.49-0.30). p=0.S32
taking part in certain school activities
0.03(4.60-0 77), p=0.806 -0.08(-0.79-0.39). p=0.500
exchanging written notes with the class teacher
-0.03( 0.74-0 53), p=0.747 -0 01( 0 59-0 51), p=0.877
Involvement in education
Cooperation with school:
Withdrawal from the child Low levels of control
Parent-teacher meetings
-0.09(-1.64-0 58), p=0.346 0.02(-1.48-1 87), p=0.817
Lectures for parents
0 09(-0 15-0 36), p=0.420 0 14(-Q15-0 63), p=0.223
scheduled one-on-one conversations
-0.19(-0.52-0 04), p=0.094 -0.20( 0.80-0 04), p=0.082
scheduled one-on-one conversations at parents' Initiative
-0.32(0.10-0.65). p=0.0D7
0.11(-0.21-0 61), p=0.341
one-on-one conversations at the initiative of the class teacher
-0.20( 0.53-0 02), p=0.075
0.13( 0.16-0 68), p=0.227
conversation with the school pedagogue
0.11( 0.19-0 46), p=0.407
0.19(-0.14-0 84), p=0.16
conversation with the school psychologist
-0.01fc0.37-0.33), p=0.911
-0.09(-0.73-0 35), p=0.482
Involvement In the Parents' Council
0.19( 0.02-0 63), p=0.072
0.12( 0.22-0 77), p=0.281
taking part in certain school activities
-0.01(-0.51-0.46), p=0.S22
-0.08(-0.98-0 49), p=0.512
exchanging written notes with the class teacher
-0.06(-0.58-0 32), p=0.581
0.08(-0.43-0 94), p=0.4B8
Parameters shown: Beta (95% CI: Lower Bound - Upper Bound)
Results of the research that aimed to investigate the impact of forms of cooperation with school on fathers' involvement in education of their children are shown in Table 4. The research findings show that the identified forms of cooperation between fathers and the school - participation in parent-teacher meetings, one-on-one conversations at the initiative of the class teacher and participation in the Parents' Council are the predictors of the observed aspects of fathers' involvement in education - disinterest and the child has the right to his opinion. Disinterest as a type of fathers' involvement in education is influenced by participation in parent-teacher meetings 0=0.221, 95% CI: (0.042-0.966), p=0.033) and involvement in the Parents' Council (p=0.357, 95% CI: 0.309-1.641), p=0.005). Fathers who participate in parent-teacher meetings and in the Parents' Council have higher scores for the lack of interest variable. The reflection of the influence of certain predictors on the lack of interest variable is reflected in fathers' readiness for involvement and greater interest in providing a supportive environment for the child's education. Fathers' involvement in education characterized by allowing the child to have the right to his opinion is influenced by one-on-one conversations at the initiative of the class teacher (P=-0.307, 95% CI: (-1.178--0.15), p=0.012). Fathers who attend one-on-one interviews initiated by the class teacher are more likely to believe that the child has the right to his or her own opinion. Under the influence of this predictor, fathers' parenting skills are strengthened in the direction of providing greater support and encouragement of the child to have his own opinion, respecting his individuality.
The obtained findings show that the perception of fathers' education practices ranges from the lack of interest in the child, to the concept that the child has the right to his own opinion. Participation in parent-teacher meetings, one-on-one conversations at the initiative of the class teacher and participation in the Parents' Council proved to be predictor variables by which the school informs parents, helps them to be more successful and more involved in solving school problems, at the same time helping create different education techniques with the help of which parents can establish better relationship with the child in achieving education goals.
Table 4
Prediction of the type of fathers' involvement in child's education based on their cooperation with school
Involvement in education
Cooperation with school: Understanding and support High levels of control
Parent-teacher meetings 0.03( 0.23-0.32), p=0.765 () 19( 0 Hi 0 0?), p=0.067
Lectures for parents -0.01 (-0.24-0.21), p= 0.905 0.14( 0:12-0.58), p=0.200
scheduled one-on-one conversations -0.03(-0.30-0.23), p=0.796 -0.00( 0.52-0.31), p=0.628
scheduled one-on-one conversations at parents'
initiative -0.09<-0.29-0.12). p=0.413 0.01(-0.29-0.34), p=0.880
one-or-one conversations at the initiative of the
class teacher -0.05(-0.31-0.20), p=0.679 0.14(-0.16-0.04), p=0.236
conversation with the school pedagogue -0.22(-0.65-0 19), p=0.289 0.12(-0.45-0.86), p=0.539
conversation with the school psychologist 0,07( 0.41-0.58), p=0.732 -0.10( 0.96-0.58), p=0.629
involvement in the Parents' Council -0 14(4)63-0 1 7), p=0.268 0 12( 0 31-0 93), p=0 331
taking part in certain school activities 0.13( 0.27-0.73), p=0.360 0.04(-0.66-0.89), p=0.771
exchanging written notes with the class teacher 0.01 (-0.31-0.34), p=0.936 -0.09(-0.73-0.27), p=0.373
Involvement In education
Cooperation with school: Lack of interest High levels of protection
Parent-teacher meetings 0.22(0.04-0.96), p=0.D33 0.01 (-0.51-0.51), p=0.998
Lectures for parents 0.02(-0.33-0.41), p=0.827 00/(0?!) 0 54). p=0.545
scheduled one-on-one conversations -0.14(-0.72-0.17), p=0.228 0.01 (-0.49-0.51), p=0.962
scheduled one-on-one conversations at parents'
initiative 0.10(^0.16-0.51), p=0.313 0.12(-0.15-0.60), p=0.249
one-on-one conversations at the initiative of the
class teacher 4).11 (-0.63-0.22), p=0.336 -0.02(-0.53-0.42), p=0.826
conversation with the school pedagogue 0.19(-0.35-1.05), p=0.326 0.23(-0.33-1.23), p=0 253
conversation with the school psychologist 0 20(124 040). p=0.310 024(1 1^(1 39). p=0 263
involvement in the Parents' Council 0.35(0.30-1.64), p=0.005 -0.04(-0.85-0.62), p=0.758
taking part in certain school activities -0.12(-1.23-0.42), p=0.336 0.09(0.60-1.24), p=0.492
exchanging written notes with the class teacher -0.02(4) .61-0.46), p=0.780 0.01 (-0.58-0.62), p=0.946
Involvement In education
Child has the right to his/her
Cooperation with school own opinion Distrust of children
Parent-teacher meetings -Q 03(-Q 63-0 47), p=0.774 -0.15(-0 71-0.10), p=0 147
Lectures for parents -0 08(-0.64-0 27), p=0.425 0 02( 0 29-0.37), p=0 827
scheduled one-on-one conversations 0.03(-0.46-0.61), p-0.787 -0.11 (-0.58-0.22), p-0.386
scheduled one-on-one conversations at parents'
initiative O.12(-0.16 0.64), p=0.246 0.12(0.12 0.48), p=0.236
one-on-one conversations at the initiative of the
class teacher ^0.30(117-0.15), p=0.012 0.03( 0.33-0.45), p=0.755
conversation with the school pedagogue -0.17(-1.21-0.46), p=0.376 -0.15( 0.86-0.38), p=0.440
conversation with the school psychologist 0 22(-0.45-1 51), p=0.284 0 0(1(0 88050 P=0 669
involvement in the Parents' Council -0.21(-1.48-0.10), p-0.088 0.11 (-0.37-0.93), p-0.398
taking part in certain school activities 0.06(-0:74-124) .p-0.620 0.18(-0.29-1.29), p-0.212
exchanging written notes with the class teacher 0.16(-0.15-1.13), p-0.136 -0.16(-0.85-0.11), p-0.136
Involvement In education
Cooperation with school Withdrawal from the child Low levels of control
Parent-teacher meetings Q.16(-0.QS-0.69), p-0 121 0.1 K-0.27-0.86), p=0.307
Lectures for parents 0 01 (-0 29-0 33), p=0 892 0 04(-0 36-056), p=0.672
scheduled one-on-one conversations -0.04(-0.44-0.31), p=0.726 0.01( 0.54-0.56), p=0.S65
scheduled one-on-one conversations at parents'
Initiative -0.01 (4) .29-0.28), p-0 972 0.09(-0.24-0.59), p=0.412
one-on-one conversations at the initiative of the
class teacher 0.07(-0.25-0.47), p=0.543 -0.02(-0.59-0.46),p=0.817
conversation with the school pedagogue 0.02(-0.55-0.63), p=0.894 0.24(-0.34-1.39),p=0.236
conversation with the school psychologist 019(1 01 <130. p=0.365 -0.07(-1.20-0.83). p=0.716
Involvement In the Parents' Council 0 12( 0 29-0 82), p=0 351 0 11( 0 45-1 13), p=0 382
taking part in certain school activities 0.OS(-0.48-0.91), p=0.539 -0 17(-1J65-0.30), p=0.225
exchanging written notes with the class teacher 0.03(-0.37-0.53), p=0.743 -0.04(-0.81 -0.52), p=0.667
Parameters shown are: Beta (95% CI: Lower Bound - Upper Bound)
Discussions
The research conducted in this paper aimed to examine the connection between the family-school cooperation and parental involvement in education. The obtained research results indicate that different forms of parental participation school activities provide them with more information and ensure the professional knowledge about positive education practices that parents should use. The obtained statistical findings related to the examination of parental involvement in various forms of family-school cooperation show that the most common form of parent-school cooperation is parent-teacher meeting (93.4%), while one-on-one conversation at the initiative of the class teacher (23.7%) was given a lower score by parents. Variables that showed a statistically significant difference between fathers and mothers in their participation in various forms of cooperation with school are parent-teacher meetings and lectures for parents. Differences in perception regarding participation in various forms of cooperation with school, tested by the Chi-square test were in favour of mothers. The obtained findings show that attendance at parent meetings and lectures for parents is twice as common among mothers than among fathers. The results show that mothers are more interested in establishing cooperative relations with school, which in this context would imply greater need of mothers to develop parental competencies by achieving a balance in parental education practices.
The educational value of the relationship between family and school is contained in two dimensions: affective and control. The affective dimension is reflected in the acceptance, understanding, support, affection for the child, which is indicated by the results of this research that understanding and support is an education practice that is primarily used by parents (1.46±0.42). As for the control dimension, restrictive upbringing, as one of its extremes, is characterized by the tendency of parents to impose numerous rules of conduct, and to insist on consistent adherence to them, which causes a low level of mental and physical freedom of the child. The results obtained in this research, within the stated dimension of control, indicate that parents are often distrustful of children (2.17 ± 0.66), but also advocate the view that the child has the right to his opinion (2.26±0.82). The research also observed excessive protection, high control and
low control as aspects of parents' education techniques. Excessive control as an extreme of the control dimension to which a large number of educational rules are attached that inhibit the child's autonomy is not the dominant practice used by parents (3.48 ± 0.67), which shows us that parents clearly view this dimension of education as important in actualizing the child's potential. Permissive parental behaviour, as opposed to excessive control, is reflected in low control and flexibility in defining rules of conduct (3.58 ± 0.86). Lack of influence, lack of interest and withdrawal from the child can lead to more serious consequences for the child's development. The obtained results of the research indicate that lack of interest and withdrawal from the child are education practices which parents choose in certain situations. However, there is a statistically significant difference between mothers and fathers in the perception of education practices. Variables that have proven to be statistically significant in the analysis of the perception of parents' education practices are withdrawal from the child and low level of control. More frequent withdrawal from the child (3.82 ± 0.60) and low level of control (3.45 ± 0.88) are shown by fathers than by mothers.
The results of examining the influence of certain forms of family-school cooperation on the education practices of parents showed that there are differences in the perception of these education practices by fathers and mothers. Namely, the research findings show that following forms of cooperation between mothers and school have been identified: one-on-one conversations on personal initiative, conversations with school pedagogues and attending lectures for parents, are all predictors of observed aspects of mothers' education practices such as: excessive control, the child has the right to his opinion and withdrawal. Mothers' perception of the aspect of excessive control is influenced by one-on-one conversations on personal initiative (0=0.295, 95% CI: (0.084-0.711), p=0.014) and conversations with the school pedagogue (0=0.294, 95% CI: (0.042-0.794), p=0.030). The findings of the research indicate that mothers are aware of the need for cooperation in the form of one-on-one conversations on personal initiative and conversations with the school pedagogue. Namely, participation in forms of cooperation with school related to one-on-one conversations on personal initiative and conversations with the school pedagogue influences the creation of education practices in mothers from the aspect of parental high level of control, which can be understood as parental control growing into parental supervision, and those are not identical education practices. Parental supervision is associated with parents' active inquiry about the child's activities, so parental control associated with setting and communicating rules of conduct is encouraged after individual interviews with teachers and interviews with school pedagogues. Education-focused activities of mothers expressed through the aspect that the child has the right to his opinion are influenced by the form of cooperation with school lectures for parents (0=-0.263, 95% CI: (-0.773-0.038), p=0.031). Quality communication between parent and child allows the child to voluntarily tell the parent about their activities, feelings, etc., and that the child has the right to his opinion. The influence of the presence of mothers in lectures for parents, as a form of cooperation with school, is reflected in the perception of mothers that it is important for mothers to interacts with the child, and in that way, the child takes greater responsibility for their own behaviour. Mother's withdrawal from the child is influenced by one-on-one conversations on personal initiative (0=-0.329, 95% CI: (0.104-0.652), p=0.007). Giving freedom to the child weakens the power of the mother's authority, which further implies withdrawal from the child. The form of cooperation with the school that implies individual conversations on personal initiative has an impact on shaping mother's involvement in education and their understanding that they are important emotional support in creating relationships with the child in the context of family functionality. School's involvement in the form of conversations at the personal initiative of parents, conversations with the school pedagogue and lectures for parents are forms of cooperation between family and school necessary for developing mothers' awareness of the importance of parenting.
Observed aspects of the father's education practices are lack of interest and the child has the right to his own opinion. Identified forms of cooperation between fathers and the school: participation in parent-teacher meetings, individual conversations at the initiative of the class teacher and participation in the Parents' Council, are predictors of observed aspects of fathers' education practices. Father's disinterest in the child is influenced by participation in parent-teacher meetings (0=0.221, 95% CI: (0.042-0.966) and participation in the Parents' Council) (0=0.357, 95% CI: (0.309-1.641), p=0.005). Fathers' involvement in various aspects of school activities through participation in parent-teacher meetings and in the Parents' Council is an important component of the education process, which implies their interest in cooperative relationships and ways of involvement in the decision-making process. The participation of fathers in parent-teacher meetings and in the Parents' Council increases their interest in areas that are of immediate importance for the education of their children. Fathers' education practices that imply children's right to have their own opinion, are influenced by one-on-one conversations at the initiative of the class teacher (0=-0.307, 95% CI: (-1.178--0.15), p=0.012). The class teacher provides the parents with relevant information about the child and in that way tries to help parents in finding more adequate education techniques
when working with their children.
Namely, the research found that mothers and fathers both perceive the desirable pattern of behaviour in the parental role which is the view that the child has the right to his own opinion. Negative aspects of mothers' education practices are high levels of control and withdrawal from the child, while fathers mostly show lack of interest in the child. Identified forms of cooperation between family and school, based on parents' assessments, show that lectures for parents, conversation at the initiative of the class teacher, conversation on the personal initiative of parents and conversation with the school pedagogue, participation in parent-teacher meetings and participation in the Parents' Council, are forms of cooperation that need to be improved in order to raise the awareness of mothers and fathers about the importance of parenting.
Conclusion
The essence of the paper is the empirical approach used in the research, which aimed to examine the connection between family-school cooperation and parents' involvement in education. The results of the research show that parents mostly choose parent-teacher meetings as a form of family-school cooperation, and that mothers are more engaged than fathers when it comes to parent-teacher meetings and lectures for parents. The established form of cooperation between parents and school is the parent-teacher meeting, while the frequency of conversations at the initiative of the class teacher and the parents noticeably decreases as children get older. This finding partially confirms the initial hypothesis in the research that the most common forms of cooperation between parents and the school are parent-teacher meetings and conversations at the initiative of the class teacher.
Parents choose education techniques that will help them achieve their education objectives, taking care not to disturb the emotional relationship with the child. Education practices which parents use to establish interaction with the child, viewed through the affective dimension and the dimension of control, range from the basic feeling of acceptance and love, or rejection and conditional love, all the way to the process of guidance reflected in strict requirements, expecting obedience and showing power. Namely, parents' assessments of education techniques show that understanding and support is the education practice that is most frequently used by parents, while excessive control had a lower score. Differences in parents' assessments of education techniques tested by the t-test indicate that excessive withdrawal from children, as well as lower control are shown by fathers more than mothers. These findings confirm the assumption that there is a statistically significant difference between mothers and fathers in their perception of the education techniques understanding and support and excessive control (measured through eight aspects) in favour of mothers.
Examination of the predictive properties of independent variables was tested using linear regression. The obtained research results on the impact of certain forms of cooperation with school on parental involvement in education have shown that lectures for parents and conversations at the initiative of the class teacher are predictors in creating desirable patterns of parental behaviour by granting children the right to their opinion. Under the influence of the selected predictor variables: one-on-one conversation at parents' initiative, conversation with the school pedagogue, participation in parent-teacher meetings and participation in the Parents' Council on parents' education practices such as: high control, withdrawal from the child and disinterest in the child, parents' behaviour is altered in favour of modelling family relationships and providing optimal conditions for child development. Parent-teacher meetings are not a predictor of parents' education techniques, although this form of cooperation was most frequently chosen by parents. Moreover, understanding and support as an education technique that dominates parents' education practices with children in this case was not observed as the education technique. The hypothesis related to the predictors of parents' education practices has been partially confirmed: forms of cooperation with the school - parent-teacher meetings, lectures for parents and one-on-one conversations at the initiative of the class teacher are predictors of parents' education practices - understanding and support, and child has the right to his/her own opinion.
The results of the research presented in this paper are the evident indicator of the interdependence between the family-school cooperation and parental involvement in education. The research findings show the willingness of parents to gradually change their education techniques and requirements under the influence of various forms of parental participation in school activities, which provide them with more information and ensure the necessary professional knowledge for parents. The existing empirical results and theoretical definition of complex concepts of parenting provide an opportunity to interpret the findings and confirm the main hypothesis of the research: There is a statistically significant correlation between
certain forms of family-school cooperation and parental involvement in education. The obtained research findings indicate that the forms of cooperation between parents and school are reflected in the education techniques used by parents and that they are predictors of observed aspects of education practices of parents. Parents recognized the importance of cooperation with school, which can help them become more competent in the parental role, and to better understand the child's developmental needs and establish better communication with the child.
The results of this research shed light on certain aspects of parenting and the position of the child in the education process and are important for raising awareness of the parental role in education as well as for pointing out possible changes that need to occur to forms of cooperation between family and school. The diversity of parents' education techniques which they use to shape the family climate in terms of directing and guiding the child is more important from the aspect of general parental involvement in education, than a specific education style. Gaining empirical insight into the mentioned relations benefits further research and practice of education-focused activities of parents and school.
Acknowledgements
This paper is part of the project no. 179020 "Concepts and strategies for ensuring the quality of basic education", financed by the Ministry of Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia.
Conflict of interests
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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