CC BY
56
DOI: 10.48647/IFES.2022.37.31.021
Farhat Akram Mughal, Ameer Hamza
PAKISTAN AND CHINA IN SCO:
THE REALIZATION OF MUTUAL POTENTIAL
Abstract. This paper acknowledges that Pakistan and China keep close strategic ties and cooperate in diverse directions within the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). It argues that whether Pakistan and China cooperate at a bilateral or multilateral level, the net result does not remain limited to both states alone but positively affects other SCO member states.
It identifies specific areas of bilateral cooperation which yielded regional impacts where China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) remains atop. The joint efforts of peace, security, and counter-terrorism are other such areas that engulf the entire SCO, including Russia, and create more space for closer cooperation at the multilateral level. Pakistan and China are receptive to the participation of Central Asian Republics in their endeavors and cement further bilateral relations with each state promoting economic and security ties. This paper further illustrates how Belt and Road Initiative and China Pakistan Economic Corridor created a possibility of mutual development and growth, invoking regional integration and promoting peace and security. The linkage between BRI initiatives in Central Asia and China Pakistan Economic Corridor in Pakistan blurs the bilateralism between China and Pakistan as part of SCO. This paper suggests that Pakistan and China capitalize on their mutual incentives of being permanent members of SCO and enable a friendly environment for mutual growth, prosperity, and a shared future along with their other SCO partner states in the region.
Keywords: Pakistan, China, SCO, Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), CPEC, Complex Interdependence.
Authors: Farhat Akram MUGHAL, Ph.D., Scholar, the School of Politics and International Relations Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan; Founder President, Institute of Peace and Diplomatic Studies, Islamabad. E-mail: ipd.pakistan@gmail.com
Ameer HAMZA, MPhil scholar, Air University, Islamabad. E-mail: ipd.pakistan@gmail.com
Conflict of interests. The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests.
Ф.А. Магхол, А. Хамза
Пакистан и Китай в ШОС: реализация взаимного потенциала
Аннотация. В статье констатируется наличие тесных стратегических связей Пакистана и Китая и факт развития многовекторного сотрудничества сторон в рамках ШОС. Авторы указывают, что независимо от того, на каком уровне — двустороннем или многостороннем — осуществляется сотрудничество Пакистана и Китая, результат его сказывается не только на этих двух государствах, но и положительно влияет на другие страны — члены ШОС.
В работе характеризуются конкретные области двустороннего сотрудничества, которые оказали влияние на регион в свете особой роли Китайско-пакистанского экономического коридора (КПЭК). Совместные усилия в области поддержания мира, безопасности и противостояния терроризму — это еще одна сфера, важная для всей ШОС, включая Россию, и создающая дополнительные возможности для более тесного сотрудничества в многостороннем формате.
Пакистан и Китай приветствуют участие республик Центральной Азии в соответствующих усилиях и укрепляют дальнейшие двусторонние отношения с каждым из этих государств, продвигая связи в сфере экономики и безопасности. В статье также показано, как инициатива «Пояс и путь» и КПЭК, создав возможность взаимного развития и роста, стимулируют региональную интеграцию, способствуя укреплению мира и безопасности. Связь между инициативой «Пояс и путь» в Центральной Азии и Китайско-пакистанским экономическим коридором в Пакистане размывает двусторонние рамки отношений между Китаем и Пакистаном как части ШОС и поднимает их диалог на уровень многостороннего взаимодействия. В работе высказывается пожелание, чтобы Пакистан и Китай оптимальным образом использовали преимущества, проистекающие из того, что обе страны являются полноправными членами ШОС, и создавали
дружественную среду для взаимного роста, процветания и общего будущего со всеми другими региональными государствами — партнерами по ШОС.
Авторы: Фархат Акрам МАГХОЛ, доктор философии (Ph.D.), научный сотрудник Школы политики и международных отношений Университета Куэйд-И-Азам, Исламабад, Пакистан; президент-основатель Института мира и дипломатических исследований, Исламабад. E-mail: ipd.pakistan@gmail.com
Амир ХАМЗА, магистр философии (MPhil), Авиационный университет, Исламабад. E-mail: ipd.pakistan@gmail.com
Ключевые слова: Пакистан, Китай, ШОС, ИПП, КПЭК, комплексная взаимозависимость.
Конфликт интересов. Авторы заявляют об отсутствии конфликта интересов.
Introduction
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) has been considered an essential and significant political, economic, diplomatic, and strategic converting point for Pakistan and China, especially after Pakistan joined the SCO as a permanent member in 2017. Pakistan swiftly considered the potential of regional cooperation in SCO and joined the organization as an observer state in July 2005, and later in 2017, after a long presence, became a permanent member along with India.
The attraction for Pakistan to be in SCO was not impulsive but driven by growing extremism, separatism, and terrorism in the region in the aftermath of the 9/11 incident and the U.S.-led Global War on Terror (GWoT), which Pakistan could not unilaterally mitigate. Pakistan faced tremendous challenges, including a deficit of trust in developing close cooperation with the U.S. and allies in their Afghanistan pursuits. On the other hand, Pakistan suffered more than 150 billion USD in loss to the economy and sacrificed more than 70,000 lives in the past 20 years after remaining allied with the U.S. as a frontline state.1 Pakistan was forced to join the GWoT due to the U.S. classic arms twisting approach.2 Even after being an active partner
1 Ahmad Khurshid. 'War on Terror' Has Cost Pakistan More Than $150bn in Losses Since 9/11, Officials Say, Arab News, September 12, 2021. URL: https://www.arabnews.com/node/ 1927131/world (accessed: 20 May, 2022).
2 Goldenberg Suzanne. Bush threatened to bomb Pakistan, says Musharraf, The Guardian, September 22, 2006. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/sep/22/pakistan.usa (accessed: 20 May, 2022).
in the uncalled-for war, Pakistan was continuously asked "to do more" in its role in U.S.'s global engagement in Afghanistan.1
For Pakistan, SCO also offers a platform where the country can achieve its objectives through various initiatives. Pakistan's presence in SCO has also offered the country to build its togetherness with China and balance India in the regional security, economic and strategic calculus. With the advent of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), in 20132 the prospects for deepening economic cooperation improved after China became a World Trade Organisation (WTO) member in 2001. This inclusion was a stepping stone toward making China's economic development and the vision for making the country a moderately prosperous society. Moreover, cooperation in China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) in 2015, Pakistan's prospects for cooperation with China grew manifold.
Pakistan and China are committed to integrating the entire region and shaping its industrial transportation towards Gwadar port for trade, business, and economic endeavors. In this regard, China and Pakistan cooperate closely with Central Asian Republics (CARS) at the bilateral and multilateral levels to realize the true potential of cooperation in the SCO. Although Pakistan has had very close cooperation with CARS, Chinese-supported permanent membership of SCO enables Pakistan to work with CARS on areas of mutual interest more closely. These areas of interest may include culture, tourism, energy, economy, trade, religious harmony, research and development, science, emerging technologies, mining, and information technology.
The contemporary regional dynamics suggest that the SCO region is the core of Chinese efforts concentrated on development and growth. China's increasing cooperation with Russia, Pakistan, and Central Asia approves the notion because it tends to push SCO member states to increase interconnectivity, boost regional trade, and innovate transportation and communication infrastructure.3 This paper rightly identifies that Pakistan and China
1 Afzal Madiha. An Uneasy Limbo for US-Pakistan Relations Amidst the Withdrawal from Afghanistan, Brookings, August 6, 2021. URL: https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-fro m-chaos/2021/08/06/an-uneasy-limbo-for-us-pakistan-relations-amidst-the-withdrawal-an-m-afghanistan/ (accessed: 20 May, 2022).
2 Xi Jinping. Promote Friendship Between Our People and Work Together to Build a Bright Future (speech, State visit to Kazakhstan, Nazarbayev University, Astana, September 7, 2013).
3 Nurgozhayeva Roza. How Is China's Belt and Road Changing Central Asia?, The Diplomat, July 9, 2020. URL: https://thediplomat.com/2020/07/how-is-chinas-belt- and-road -changing-central-asia/(accessed: 20 May, 2022).
must deepen their bilateral cooperation and broaden their scope by adding CARs into the cooperation equation. It will strengthen the SCO and fulfill the Shanghai Spirit's true meaning.
Theoretical Framework
In times of growing interdependence, interconnectivity, and globalization, there is an emerging debate on the impact of regional organizations integrating the participating states. The scholarly research on Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) primarily focused on its means of cooperation is insufficient and inadequate, the gap this particular research aims to bridge. In this research paper, using the relevance of the complex interdependence theoretical framework, an attempt has been made to explain the complex dynamics involved in building a solid partnership between states at bilateral and multilateral levels. The theory of Complex Interdependence is equally relevant to Pak-China bilateral relations and multi-party cooperation in the SCO at the regional level.
A core value of SCO is the Shanghai Spirit which binds the state in mutual trust, respect, equality, respect for diverse civilizations, and pursuit of development.1 Joseph Nye and Robert Keohane [Nye J. and Keohane R.]have further proposed complex interdependence as a theoretical paradigm to understand the multilateral cooperation phenomenon discussed in the study. The framework also relates well with the contemporary models and theories of people-to-people contacts, and finally, it has maintained solid foundations despite continuous refining.2Here interdependence also refers to a growing sensitivity and vulnerability between separate units in the international system or states in the organizations being the primary actors [Zurn Michael]. The theory's fundamental concepts are, along with others, power and dependence, conflict and cooperation, coordination and communication.
Inter-dependence is when nation states and national societies depend on other states to achieve their vital interests and help other states achieve their goals. The core elements of this theory are the cornerstone of Pak-China cooperation, where they cooperate at the multilateral level and
1 Xinhua. 'Shanghai Spirit,' Secret of SCO's Success, China Daily Website — Connecting China Connecting the World, last modified June 6, 2017. URL: https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/ world/2017xivisitskazakhstan/2017-06/06/content_29640474.htm (accessed: 20 May, 2022).
2 Van Lange and Paul A. M, APA Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology: Interpersonal Relations (Washington, USA: American Psychological Association, 2015).
create space for coordination and cooperation through communication and dependence. It is worth mentioning here that China and Pakistan have already incorporated the notions of complex interdependence and made significant strides. China and Pakistan have worked with BRI and CPEC, respectively, to create an incentive in their favor in the organizational setting of SCO by using the practical model proposed by Joseph Nye and Robert Keo-hane.
Pakistan's SCO Membership and Pak-China Cooperation
SCO is regional cooperation whose core membership area remains Southern Asia, Central Asia, and Eurasia, where multiple states are willing to cooperate on areas of mutual interest. Pakistan lies at the center of the other three major in SCO, i.e., China, India, and Russia.1 The geography of Pakistan makes it a central and thus integral state to the SCO. It is a transit corridor amongst the states and the land trading routes of Eurasia and maritime trade routes in the Indian Ocean. The permanent membership of Pakistan gave SCO multiple incentives, which are beneficial for Pakistan.
Initially, the organization was a focused contact group comprising China and Central Asian Republics, which later evolved into an organization inspired by the European Union (E.U.) integration model. SCO was not only an organization that evolved after Soviet disintegration and followed the E.U. model, but many other organizations came into being [Johnston Seth A.]. The E.U. model presented a guidebook for later organizations like SCO to become more inclusive and integrated by resolving the border disputes, evolving market economy, and standardized rules applicable to all states driven by consensus [Ayusi Rafiq and Nurhasanah Siti].
Given the evolution and membership of Pakistan in SCO, Pakistan and China are closely working on regional integration by developing a network of highways, railways, and seaways. The foremost and critical of all is the agreement between China and Pakistan to build the Kashgar-Gwadar Street Rail system, enabling connectivity and decreasing transit time from Kashg-har to Gwadar. In addition, Pakistan is an energy deficient country that needs immense energy resources to supplement its electricity in summers and gas in winters. Central Asian Republics are a source of cheaper and reliable energy for Pakistan, cooperating with Central Asian Republics to build CA-
1 Kelly Lidia, Pinchuk Denis, and Korsunskaya Darya. India, Pakistan to Join China, Russia in Security Group, U.S., July 10, 2015. URL: https://www.reuters.com/article/ china-russia-india-pak-sco -idUKKCN0PK20520150710 (accessed: 20 May, 2022).
SA-10001 and Turkmenistan—Afghanistan—Pakistan—India (TAPI)2 pipelines to meet the acute shortages of energy [Zab Un-Nisa and Ghulam Mustafa].
The permanent membership of SCO has served Pakistan in multiple ways as it dispelled the notion of diplomatic isolation in Pakistan. Pakistan was also able to interact with Russia, China, and Central Asian states with renewed confidence and continuously engaged in multi-level economic and security cooperation, especially in the Regional Anti-Terrorism Structure (RATS) and in Afghanistan [Aslam Tehmina and Tariq Ilsa]. The Afghanistan contact group has recently been active in building regional consensus on the Afghanistan problem.
Pakistan further got the opportunity to expand trade with SCO members except for India and open more avenues of cooperation in tourism, defense, religion, culture, science, information technology, commerce, trade, and industry. Climate change, clean energy, protection of human rights, and evolution of democratic practices have also been the focus of Islamabad in SCO. Pakistan can become reliable and potential energy and commercial trading partner of all SCO members. China has committed 4.68 billion USD to the SCO to promote interconnectivity, streamlined trade, and open markets. China further announced establishing an SCO Interbank Consortium in 2005 to keep the cash available for joint projects of SCO. It can also be a good source of finances for Pakistan during the stressed economy [Aslam Tehmina and Tariq Ilsa].
The core interest of Pakistan is to kick start sustainable economic growth in the country and make active contributions toward peace, security, progress, and mutual harmony. Moreover, CPEC is a mega project destined to play an incremental role in SCO to mitigate the distances in the second phase of its development. It would increase socio-economic interaction amongst member states, boost people-to-people ties, and appreciate cultural diversity and its assimilation into a diverse community of nations [Fayy-az Shabana].
Some specific experts gave their positive and convincing arguments in favor of Pakistani membership in SCO. It is also argued that Pakistan has the potential to forge strong ties with Central Asia and gain access to the natural resources of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. Although Turkmenistan is not a permanent member of SCO, Pakistan still manages to make inroads
1 CASA-1000 Project details https://www.casa-1000.org/ (accessed: 20 May, 2022).
2 TAPI. URL: https://www.hydrocarbons-technology.com/projects/turkmenistan-afgh anistan-pakistan-india-tapi-gas- pipeline-project/ (accessed: 20 May, 2022).
and conclude the TAPI gas pipeline project [Aslam Tehmina and Tariq Ilsa].
Another scholar suggested that the CASA-1000 project is a testimony to rich natural resources in Central Asia. Given the geographic proximity, a country like Pakistan cannot ignore and is right in deciding to import energy from Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan to Afghanistan and Pakistan. CPEC's extension towards Kabul and its outreach to Central Asia would increase bilateral trade and transit revenue to all states enroute, including the Gwadar port. It is also argued that CPEC and Energy transmission are classic examples of giving and take exchange between Central Asia and Pakistan [Aslam Tehmina and Tariq Ilsa].
What Pakistan needs to do with the region and connectivity infrastructure is to run it smoothly and efficiently, enabling organic and sustainable growth in the region. Pakistan should make its way up to the Eurasian Economic Union led by Russia to diversify destination markets and multiply the origins of raw materials and minerals to produce value-added and exportable commodities [Aslam Tehmina and Tariq Ilsa].
If Pakistan can smoothly operationalize CPEC, it can offer Russia a transit corridor via CPEC, passing through Afghanistan in reciprocation for market access to Eurasian Economic Union.
Pakistan-China relations in and beyond SCO
Pakistan and China are close partners, which led to the permanent Pakistani membership of SCO after years of Observer Status. China has always welcomed Pakistan's presence in the SCO especially being a vital neighbor and partner for the long-term strategic relationship. This cooperation results from mutual trust and respect over decades which has evolved into a strategic partnership. The relationship between Pakistan and China is bilateral in its outlook but regional in its impacts because of accelerating regional interconnectivity sparked by BRI and CPEC. Pak-China bilateral regions do not operate in isolation. Instead, they can potentially impact the entire SCO's trade, economy, energy, peace, security, and transportation landscape.
Economic Cooperation
The economic cooperation between Pakistan and China is not new and is not only simply bound by the presence of Pakistan in SCO; however, the history of economic cooperation is long and outstanding. The relationship between states based on economics and trade was improved due to China's
opening up and reform period and later joining of WTO as a member in 2001. Similarly, Pakistan has faced strict restrictions from the U.S., and the economic crunch, including terrorism, has resulted in a long abyss that caused nearly absent foreign direct investment. This was the case, especially in the years in the aftermath of 9/11. A result of limited options and strategic and primarily economic compulsion has also led Pakistan to get closer to China to develop multiple tools to deepen and broaden the bilateral cooperation on the economy. The first significant understanding between both partners was focused on amendments to imports and export quotas, reducing tariffs, enabling an investment-friendly environment, and removing trade barriers.
Early Harvest Program 2005 is considered a binding agreement between Pakistan and China to formalize the trading practices to improve competitiveness to enhance economic cooperation. It was aimed at removing trading barriers and promoting bilateral trade between Beijing and Islamabad. It paved the way for other trade agreements, i.e., Preferential Trade Agreements (PTA) and Free Trade Agreements (FTA).1
These trade agreements paid off both partners in revenue and mutual trust because they significantly boosted bilateral trade. The steady rise in trade volume started with EHP enabled trade volume of 9.2 billion USD in 2010 and 17 billion USD in 2014. The exports by Pakistan increased from 1.5 billion USD in 2010 to 2.5 billion USD in 2014, but there is more space for increasing exports to China.2
Although the balance of trade analysis suggests that the balance remains in Chinese favor because Chinese exports to Pakistan are five to six times higher than Pakistani exports to China. In December 2020, monthly Pakistani exports to China hit 312.33 million USD, while the Chinese exports to Pakistan were worth 2.12 billion USD during the year 2020.3 Chinese exports to Pakistan were hit 15.36 billion USD for the same period. Given Pakistan's trade volume and potential, China remains the second largest export destination of Pakistan after the U.S.4 Several factors influence the trade
1 Durrani Zahra. Pak-China Trade: Free Trade Agreements, Centre for Strategic and Contemporary Research, November 6, 2018. URL: https://cscr.pk/explore/themes/trade-econo mics/pak-china-trade-trade-free-trade-agreements/(accessed: 20 May, 2022).
2 Ibid.
3 Ahmad Shahzada. Pakistan-China Relations: Increasing Bilateral Trade, The News International, March 14, 2021/ URL: https://www.thenews.com.pk/tns/detail/803196-increasi ng-bilateral-trade. (accessed: 20 May, 2022).
4 Ibid.
imbalance whereby the size of the economy and manufacturing capacity are among crucial factors.
To increase the export potential of Pakistan, China and Pakistan are developing CPEC, which recently entered into its second phase where the focus is on agriculture and industrial development. In its first phase, the electric power projects under CPEC added 10,000 MW of electricity to the national grid of Pakistan. It helped Pakistan overcome chronic energy shortage and install new power plants to increase the 61 % efficiency factor by reading 28 % cost for the consumers.1 The surplus electricity would allow Pakistan to increase value-added manufacturing to gain export balance.
The second important fact of Pak China's cooperation in the network of highways, railways, and Exclusive Economic Zones, Mass Transit Systems, and Mail Line trains enables the Pakistani industry to mobilize the goods to the port areas. It creates employment for the population and generates revenue for the state, adding growth to the national economy.2 The Western route of CPEC passes through underdeveloped Balochistan and Southern KP, which are now integrated with the mainstream markets of Pakistan and connected with international markets via road and rail. It will increase the potential of mining, horticulture, poultry, livestock, fisheries, and other unique local craft which may find their space in the mainstream market generating revenue for the locals.
CPEC is designed to incentivize a more significant chunk of the population to yield maximum out of the mega project. It is possible only due to Chinese cooperation that remote and disadvantaged areas of Pakistan are now witnessing growth and will become at par with other country regions. It will enable national cohesion and integration and boost national morale among the Pakistanis, hopeful of the future. The critics and detractors of CPEC have many baseless arguments to stall the progress Pakistan and China have made. However, the statistics reflect the positive impacts of CPEC on Pakistan's economy, society, infrastructure, and industry.3
Strategic Partnership
The strategic partnership between Pakistan and China is the most significant facet of the bilateral relationship, which matured in the wake of fa-
1 Husain Ishrat. CPEC and Pakistani Economy: An Appraisal, (Islamabad: Center of Excellence for CPEC). URL: http://cpec.gov.pk/brain/public/uploads/documents/CPEC-an d-Pakistani-Economy_An-Appraisal.pdf (accessed: 20 May, 2022).
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid.
ding Pak-US bilateral ties driven by the Salala incident.1 Raymond David case2 and Abbottabad operation3. These events deteriorated the mutual trust and reliability to no repair. By default, it created the space for China, which expanded their ties in the following years, where significant breakthroughs included CPEC and Pakistan's permanent membership of SCO [Naseer Namra, Ahmad Azhar].
China and Pakistan have forged a 'strategic partnership,' which is usually termed 'all weather friendship'. It is a multi-level and multi-sectoral approach to cooperation. Every aspect of mutual significance falls under the umbrella of strategic partnership, including defense, diplomacy, and socio-economic cooperation. However, it is worth mentioning that defense and security cooperation are the defining elements of strategic cooperation [Qandeel Siddi-que]. Pakistan effectively needs Chinese support to succeed out of CPEC, seeking its integration with other SCO partners in Eurasia. In contrast, all other actors in SCO need Pakistan as a transit corridor which makes it a perfect bilateral and multilateral transaction [Naseer Namra, Ahmad Azhar].
The cooperation between Pakistan and China during the global pandemic has also been phenomenal, and both nations helped each other. Former Prime Minister Khan and President Xi Jinping met in China and reaffirmed their commitment to a bilateral strategic partnership. It appears to be the historic choice of the people which enables their states to cement the relationship further. This multidimensional bilateral relationship shapes the regional landscape concerning energy, economy, security, and transportation because of CPEC and BRI.4 If CPEC is the Southwestern arm of BRI, Central Asia is the Northern arm of BRI, enabling Pakistan and China to integrate Central Asia into their strategic calculations.
Pakistan and China are strategic weather partners who do not operate in isolation but rather believe in multilateralism. Giving SCO member states
1 BBC. Pakistan outrage after 'Nato attack kills soldiers, November 26,2011. URL: https:// www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15901363(accessed: 20 May, 2022); Response of Inter Services Public Relations Pakistan on Abbottabad Salala incident, https://www.ispr.gov.pk/front/press/ pakistan.pdf (accessed: 20 May, 2022).
2 Timeline The Raymond Davis Case, Dawn, February 4, 2011 URL: https://www.dawn. com/news/603788/timeline-the-raymond-davis-case (accessed: 20 May, 2022).
3 Abbottabad Operation and Statement fro the Prime Minister of Pakistan, May 7, 2011, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Govt of Pakistan. URL: https://mofa.gov.pk/abbottabad-operation-p ress-release-issued-by-the-pm-house-today/ (accessed: 20 May, 2022).
4 Baabar Mariana. Pakistan, China Pledge to Maintain Defence Cooperation Momentum, The News International, last modified February 7, 2022. URL: https://www.thenews.com.pk/ print/931373-pakistan-china-pledge-maintaining-defence-cooperation-mom93137 (accessed: 20 May, 2022).
access to CPEC is a vital interest of Pakistan and developing BRI through Central Asia is significant for Chinese development and growth of export markets. When PM Khan and President Xi met, both leaders discussed the details of regional situations and international politics to converge their views on strategic issues [Wolf Siegfried O.]. Afghanistan, these days, is the core debate in the entire SCO because it shares borders with crucial states in SCO, including Pakistan and China. China and Pakistan spearheaded the efforts to bring all Afghan neighbors through a Contact Group to discuss border security and counter-terrorism1.
It is worth mentioning that all Afghan neighbors are part of SCO, be it permanent membership or observer states like Iran. Through mutual efforts, the strategic partnership between China and Pakistan is helpful for the entire organization.
Another critical aspect of strategic nature is the operational sustainabili-ty of BRI which should remain effective and consistent. The maritime routes in the Indian Ocean would serve as the primary trade routes for Pakistani, Central Asian, Chinese, and Russian goods, which might be threatened in case of conflict. Given Indian apprehensions about BRI and CPEC, the Indian Ocean could be a hotbed for the conflicts [Wolf Siegfried O.]. Pakistan is committed to securing sea lanes of communication in their exclusive economic zone and has set up a special task force for the coastal infrastructure detrimental to regional trade.
The partnership is diverse and in all dimensions. Within the framework of SCO, Pakistan and China are cooperating in the framework of RATS for cooperating and intelligence sharing on dealing with terrorism. Both countries are also part of the dialogue and forums on SCO related to anti-money laundering and anti-terrorist financing. In the framework of the SCO, both states are also cooperating to thwart drug trafficking and remove the human trafficking incidences in the region.
Security Cooperation
The security cooperation between China and Pakistan is bilateral but regional in its impacts. The unique security culture of the region binds both partners not to ignore the regional realities. It enables the cooperation to bring peace and stability while eliminating terror and destabilizing elements. At the core, China supports Pakistan in guarding its independence, security, and sovereignty and facilitates socio-economic development in Pakistan.
1 China, Pakistan to Upgrade Counter-terrorism Security Cooperation Framework After Terrorist Attack, Global Times, last modified August 10, 2021. URL: https://www.global times.cn/page/202108/1231053.shtml (accessed: 20 May, 2022).
Pakistan supports Chinese commitments in the South China Sea, Taiwan, Tibet, Hong Kong, and Xinjiang.
Pakistan and China also share the same views on terrorism, be it in Afghanistan, Baluchistan, or Central Asia, and closely cooperate at the bilateral and multilateral levels within SCO through Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure. If the entire region is free from conflicts, a better environment can be created for trade, business, and investments across the SCO.
Pakistan has heavily invested in its security, which further complements the security of CPEC guarding against the threats of terrorism. Pakistan has raised a Special Security Division in the Ministry of Interior, which represents regular troops of the Pakistan Army and Civilian Law Enforcement Agencies of Pakistan, which are mandated to guard the critical infrastructure projects of CPEC [Wolf Siegfried O.]. Pakistan Navy has raised a Special Force, namely Task Force 88, mandated to guard the coastal infrastructure of CPEC, including the Gwadar port and sea routes passing trade from the Gwadar port, against the traditional and non-traditional security threats.
Pakistan Navy regards due importance to maritime security and raised a Coastal Security and Harbour Defence Force trained to operate in the coastal areas and force Protection Battalion, marines force, deployed at Gwadar to protect Chinese companies and workers [Ali Akber]. PLA Navy and Pakistan Navy also cooperate through multiple platforms, including Maritime Domain Awareness, Joint Maritime Information, Coordination Center, and Coastal Watch Stations, which serve the interests of Pakistan and China and secure the trade of all regional countries.
People to People Ties
People-to-people diplomacy has been acquiring critical importance because of its inherent openness and impartiality; unlike in traditional diplomacy and official state channels, it can involve scientists, artists, businessmen, religious leaders, youth, tourism, and sports organizations without political involvement and legal restrictions. The people-to-people corporation is simple communication between ordinary people and organizations from different countries, which seeks to deepen relations for a better understanding of culture and traditions and develop mutually beneficial cooperation. In the framework of SCO as a multilateral institution and at the bilateral level, both China and Pakistan cooperate to build stronger ties between the people.
People-to-people exchanges have played an essential role in establishing and deepening bilateral relations with other countries as part of China's diplomacy. As an essential component of China's overall diplomacy, peop-
le-to-people diplomacy has played a vital role in consolidating public support and laying a foundation for developing state-to-state relations. Pakistan and China cooperate closely to promote people-to-people ties in education, culture, language, and tourism through multiple scholarships to Pakistani students, Confucius institutes in Pakistan for language and culture, and investments for business-to-business contact.
Along with its diverse and appealing culture, places of many religious sites, ancient civilizations, cuisine, ethnic diversity, geographic landscape, and multiple kinds of weather, Pakistan has the wealthiest resource of people to people contact in the entire region. However, Pakistan is a rich country in culture, art, geostrategic location, and transnational communication corridors, relevant to all education, sports, and commerce exchange programs. The countries like Pakistan, aiming to maintain amicable relations with the rest of the world, need a superior image in the sense of the global community. Talking about the image of Pakistan, it is in dire need of developing it exceedingly since Pakistan has been mired in the security problems. Has been immeasurably manipulated on account of terrorism in the past couple of decades [Hafeez U. Khan].
Both Pakistan and China can capitalize on their respective public goodwill to further boost their ties and spread their outreach to nearing regions such as Central Asia. Pakistan shares common history, ancestral ties, mutual religion, and identical culture with Central Asia, and China has closer ties hence there is a greater chance to create the public goodwill and capitalize for socio-economic development of the entire region.
Emerging Challenges in SCO for China and Pakistan
By design, SCO was conceived as Shanghai Five for mutual understanding and cooperation in the post-Soviet unipolar world. After 9/11, SCO was formally conceived and continues to serve its purpose even in the challenging times of global terrorism. The political instability and vacuum caused by the GWoT, and haste full irresponsible withdrawal of the U.S. security forces impeded the way of peaceful resolution and sustainable political government in Kabul. The success of China's largest infrastructure project, BRI, is highly dependent on the political stability in Kabul because BRI has its footprints around Afghanistan. Furthermore, instability in Afghanistan fuels insecurity in the Western regions of Pakistan and China. A stable Afghanistan is a key to stability in the whole SCO region, while all SCO members are cognizant of the fact and have established an SCO contact group.
The territory of Afghanistan is central to SCO because it has the potential to act as a transit corridor not only for goods and services but also for energy and power transmission. Although CPEC electric power projects helped Pakistan overcome acute electricity shortages, it needs a reliable surplus power source during the long summer season while a constant gas supply during the winters. TAPI and CASA-1000 are key projects vital for Pakistan to be passed through Afghanistan, enabling socio-economic growth in Pakistan and operationalization of manufacturing units in Specialized Economic Zones (SEZs) of CPEC [Fayyaz Shabana]. Pakistan supports the SCO Contact Group to assist Afghanistan with peace and security. Hopefully, SCO Contact Groups can potentially play a positive role in resolving the issues of Afghanistan.
India is another significant challenge for BRI due to its regional ambitions and rivalry with Pakistan. Indian officials have publicly raised concerns about many projects of BRI and CPEC on account of their geographic connotations. India believes that CPEC would run through the disputed territory of Kashmir, which generates a de facto impression of Chinese recognition of Kashmir territory as sovereign land of Pakistan [Ali Akber]. Territorial disputes between India, China, and Pakistan further raise concerns in New Delhi to remain suspicious of the intentions of CPEC and BRI [Prakoso Septyanto G. and Murtyantoro Andriyansyah P.]. As India is a part of the Quadrilateral Alliance to contain China in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, it is not comfortable with China operating through Gwadar port by limiting the use of the Malacca Strait. India believes Gwadar port is a cog in the historic 'String of Pearls' maritime theory, which seeks to establish maritime trade routes, connectivity, and trade across major Sea Lanes of Communication [Brewster David, 2016; 2014].
Conclusion
The relationship between Pakistan and China is older than the SCO or even the Shanghai Spirit, but SCO indeed gave impetus to the bilateral relationship and added multilateral agenda to mutual relations. Pakistan and China are cooperating on multiple initiatives which have multilateral impacts, such as CPEC, peace and stability in Afghanistan, linking Pakistan with Central Asia through a network of roads and railways, developing Gwadar port to access international trading routes in the Indian Ocean, counter terrorism and counter-extremism along with the promotion of development, prosperity, and growth. These initiatives directly or indirectly af-
fect the SCO member states in Central Asia, creating more space for interdependence and interconnectivity.
Pakistan offers transit to China and CARs through its territory and gets market access for its products in Chinese and Central Asian markets. It has served the purpose and enhanced the scope of connectivity and interdependence between China and Pakistan and in the SCO. Pakistan needs to focus on developing the second phase of CPEC and enhance its potential offering to the region, enabling more connectivity and dependency.
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