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0ORIGINAL PAPER
DOI: 10.34022/2658-3712-2024-55-2-100-111 УДК 331 JELJ11;J18
SOCIAL SECURITY DEFICIT IN NEW FORMS OF EMPLOYMENT IN RUSSIAN ECONOMY
ABSTRACT
The Russian Federation has high level of social protection coverage. However, for the population that is part of the labor force, coverage of key types of social security is provided mainly through social insurance. The inclusion of citizens (as insured) in compulsory social insurance is a subject for payment of insurance premiums in their favor by employers (as insurers). Against the background of the growing involvement of the Russian population in new, non-standard forms of employment, there is an outflow of the employed population from the sphere of labor relations with social guarantees enshrined in labor legislation, into the sphere of civil law relations and even into shadow employment, as a result of which there is a risk of a shortage of social security for the economically active population. The aim of the study to assess the existing deficit of social security in Russia for workers in new forms of employment, that is carried out using legal and sociological approaches. The results of the study indicate a connection between the shortage of social security of the population employed in new forms with the lack of conscious interest among citizens in participating in insurance of possible social risks in the future, as well as the current need to purchase insurance protection at their own expense.
During the transformation of the labor market and the active influx of the population into new forms of employment (including through the transition from labor relations to self-employment and entrepreneurship), the absence of a market insurance culture does not automatically lead to a redistribution of responsibility between participants in the social protection system. With a decrease in the number of employers and a consequent decrease in social protection spending, the demand for social insurance services among the population has not yet been formed. In many ways, this is due to the unwillingness of the self-employed population to lose part of their income (forming "deferred consumption"). If we turn to the figures of the average income of the self-employed, their behavior is largely understandable. In these circumstances, the problem of providing social security to the population intersects with the problem of combating poverty and low income.
On the other hand, the obligations of the Russian government to provide the population with social security are enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation. The decrease in participants in pension and social insurance programs today leads to a gradual increase in the deficit of the social security budget in the future, in which it will become increasingly difficult to fulfill these obligations. It can be assumed that this is one of the main reasons determining the government's interest in expanding activity in relation to social protection policy. At the same time, employees of new forms of employment, guided more by the value of "earning now", do not show significant interest in voluntary insurance programs. In such a situation, it is possible to assume an increase in the gap between the satisfaction/sense of security of workers in new forms of employment and their growing anxiety about the social policy being implemented in the country.
To conclude, Russia is currently in a "transitional stage", when an active search is underway for a balance between legal access to social protection and demand for specific areas of social protection that requires gradual, careful work on the part of the state, with consultations with "new social partners" (for example, digital labor platforms and platform workers), as well as the self-employed and their associations. In this context, the development of new instruments of social partnership and state regulation of social protection mechanisms for the population involved in new forms of employment seems to be an important and priority task in the near future.
Keywords: social security; social security deficit; self-employed; new forms of employment; labour.
For titaHon: Zabelina O.V., Sergeeva M.V. Social security deficit in new forms of employment in Russian economy. Social and labor research. 2024;55(2):100-111. DOI: 10.34022/2658-3712-2024-55-2-100-111.
ORIGINAL PAPER
ОЦЕНКА ДЕФИЦИТА СОЦИАЛЬНОЙ ЗАЩИТЫ РАБОТНИКОВ НОВЫХ ФОРМ ЗАНЯТОСТИ В РОССИЙСКОЙ ЭКОНОМИКЕ
О.В. Забелина, М.В. Сергеева
Всероссийский научно-исследовательский институт труда, Москва, Россия
АННОТАЦИЯ
Российская Федерация характеризуется высоким уровнем охвата населения социальной защитой. В отношении населения, входящего в состав рабочей силы, охват ключевыми видами социальной защиты обеспечивается преимущественно за счет социального страхования. Включение граждан в качестве застрахованных в обязательное социальное страхование предусматривает внесение в их пользу страховых взносов работодателями, выступающими в качестве страхователей. На фоне растущей вовлеченности населения России в новые, нестандартные формы занятости, наблюдается отток занятого населения из сферы трудовых отношений с социальными гарантиями, закрепленными в трудовом законодательстве, в сфе-
© Забелина О.В., Сергеева М.В. 2024
O.V. Zabelina, M.V. Sergeeva
All-Russian Research Institute of Labor, Moscow, Russia
ру гражданско-правовых отношений и даже в теневую занятость, в результате чего формируется риск дефицита социальной защиты экономически активного населения. Целью данной статьи является оценка существующего дефицита социальной защиты российского населения, входящего в рабочую силу (с акцентом на занятых в новых формах), с использованием правового (контент-анализ НПА) и социологического (изучение результатов социологических опросов населения) подходов. Результаты исследования указывают на связь дефицита социальной защиты населения, занятого в новых формах, с отсутствием у граждан осознанного интереса к участию в страховании возможных в будущем социальных рисков, а также текущей потребности в приобретении страховой защиты за счет собственных средств.
В период трансформации рынка труда и активного притока населения в новые формы занятости (в т.ч. за счет перехода из трудовых отношений к самозанятости и предпринимательству) отсутствие рыночной страховой культуры не приводит автоматически к перераспределению ответственности между участниками системы социальной защиты. При уменьшении количества работодателей и снижении объема их расходов на социальную защиту, спрос на услуги социального страхования у населения пока не сформирован. Во многом, это связано с нежеланием самозанятого населения лишаться части получаемого дохода (формируя «отложенное потребление»). Если обратиться к цифрам средней величины дохода самозанятых, такое их поведение во многом объяснимо. В этих обстоятельствах проблема обеспечения населения социальной защитой пересекается с проблемой борьбы с бедностью и малообеспеченностью. Другой стороной этого вопроса являются обязательства российского государства по обеспечению населения социальной защитой, закрепленные в Конституции Российской Федерации. Снижение участников программ пенсионного и социального страхования сегодня ведет к постепенному увеличению дефицита бюджета социальной защиты в будущем, при котором выполнять данные обязательства будет все сложнее. Можно предположить, что это одна из основных причин, определяющих интерес государства к расширению активности в отношении политики социальной защиты, особенно в том, что касается доступа экономически активного населения к тем или иным программам и мерам поддержки. Вместе с тем, работники новых форм занятости, руководствуясь в большей мере ценностью «заработка сейчас», не проявляют значительного интереса к программам добровольного страхования. В такой ситуации можно предположить увеличение разрыва между удовлетворенностью/чувством защищенности у работников новых форм занятости и их растущей тревогой по поводу проводимой в стране социальной политики. Таким образом, Россия в данный момент находится в «переходной стадии», когда осуществляется активный поиск баланса между правовым доступом к социальной защите и спросом на конкретные направления социальной защиты. Это требует постепенной, аккуратной работы со стороны государства, с проведением консультаций с «новыми социальными партнерами» (например, платформы цифрового труда и платформенные работники), а также самозанятыми и их объединениями. В таком ключе развитие новых инструментов социального партнерства и государственного регулирования механизмов социальной защиты населения, вовлеченного в новые формы занятости, представляется важной и приоритетной задачей на ближайшую перспективу. Ключевые слова: социальная защита; дефицит социальной защиты; самозанятость; новые формы занятости; труд.
Для цитирования: Забелина О.В., Сергеева М.В. Оценка дефицита социальной защиты работников новых форм занятости в Российской экономике. Социально-трудовые исследования. 2024;55(2):100-111. DOI: 10.34022/2658-3712-2024-55-2-100-111.
INTRODUCTION
Social security of the population is a necessary condition for the functioning of any developed country that is provided by government structures with the use of social guarantees, the system of implementation of these guarantees and the functions of providing social benefits and support to low-income people.1 According to Article 7 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Russia is a social state, and any citizen of the country has the right to social protection. The functioning of the social security system in Russia is carried out within the framework of the implementation of the UN Sustainable Development Goals and the national development Goals of Russia until 2030.
The main challenge of ensuring the key principle of universality of social security in Russia in the context of the employment transformation is that most of the labor "basic" social guarantees (including income guarantees in case of illness or maternity, unemployment, retirement age; labor protection) are implemented within labor relations, which,
1 Minimum level of social protection // International Labor Organization.
2023. 22. Минимальный уровень социальной защиты (Восточная Евро-
па и Центральная Азия) [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://ilo.org.
against the background of the active development of new forms of employment (self-employment, platform employment) raises the question of the need to modernize the entire social security system in accordance with new requests.
Since citizens have different needs for social protection at different stages of life and in different life situations, the present study mainly concentrates on the social security of citizens in employment or unemployment. In the context of the social security deficit, the focus of the study is a new group of socially vulnerable group of people - workers involved in new non-standard forms of employment.
In this paper the assessment of the social security deficit of the Russian population in labor force (with an emphasis on those employed in new forms) was carried out using legal (content analysis of the regulatory legal acts) and sociological (study of the results of sociological surveys of the population) approaches.
SOCIAL SECURITY COVERAGE IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
The right of a citizen to social security and social assistance in connection with low income, the birth and upbringing of children, a difficult life situation (see
Federal Law No. 178-FZ of 17.07.1999 "On State social assistance") is not related to the form of employment, but to the inability to obtain in the appropriate income by labor or other income-generating activities in an amount higher than the subsistence minimum due to reasons beyond the individual's control. Thus, recipients of state social assistance can be both: economically inactive population, as well as employed and unemployed citizens.
One of the most important types of social assistance in Russia in recent years is the social contract. Low-income citizens who want to improve their financial situation not only on the basis of employment, but also on the basis of the self-employment and sole proprietorship can apply for the conclusion of a social contract. There is a shortage of social assistance observed in the regions of the Russian Federation caused by the different approaches of the regions (at the legislative level) to the access of the self-employed to the social contract. So, in some regions, assistance is provided only at the "entrance" to self-employment - i.e. before registering as a self-employment tax payer. In other regions, citizens that are already working as self-employed can also apply for a social contract - for development projects.2 Hence, based on the analysis of regional legislative acts, the authors identified social assistance deficit in the form of a social contract in the regional context (i.e., broader assistance to the development of self-employment and social assistance to the self-employed in a number of subjects of the Russian Federation).
Considering the social guarantees associated with the implementation of the constitutional right to work, it is possible to can note the high level of agreement of the population of the Russian Federation with the payment of unemployment benefits: the results of the survey of the service "Rabota.ru" showed that 91% of respondents agree that the government should provide this type of social guarantees. At the same time, the average amount of benefits that respondents would like to receive, according to data for 2021, is 26.6 thousand. rubles, which is more than twice the amount of benefits paid through COVID-19 crisis, when the amount of unemployment benefits increased up to 12 thousand rubles.3 As a result, a low level of satisfaction of the population with the implementation of this type of social guarantee can be assumed.
2 Conditions of the social contract in 2023 in different regions // Portal of the Self-employed. 2023. [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://xn--80aapgyievp4gwb.xn--p1ai/blog/kak-samozanyatomu-poluchit-250-tysyach-rubl#h2_8
3 The Russians named the desired amount of unemployment benefits // RBC. 2021. Россияне назвали желаемый размер пособия по безработице: Общество: РБК [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://rbc.ru
Regarding pensions, despite the universal coverage of the population of the Russian Federation with this type of social security, it can be noted that according to the 2017 RANEPA sociological survey, 49.8% of respondents do not count on government assistance in providing for themselves in old age. A significant part of the surveyed population - 42.9% spoke negatively about the government's social policy with respect to social guarantees provided to the population; only 1.6% of respondents spoke positively about it.4 It should be kept in mind that the population's concern about social guarantees may increase at certain stages (according to 2016 data, 51% of respondents were concerned about the issue of social guarantees, while in 1999 it was 34%).5 The government takes into consideration the sentiments of citizens with the reform of the social security system (for example, since 2019, pension reform has been initiated in Russia).
Problems pertained to benefits for temporary disability due to illness are also identified by the population. According to the results of a survey of the analytical company Online Market Intelligence, 49% of Russian companies do not offer an employee a sick leave to recover. Moreover, more than 20% of companies expect an employee to continue working during the period of illness, regardless of whether the employee has taken a sick leave. The survey showed that 33% of working Russians continue to go to work despite their illness. One of the most important reasons for that is the risk of a loss in earnings (37% of respondents).6 This risk is associated with the established limit of disability benefits' payments (in 2023, the maximum average payments per day of sick leave is 2736.99 rubles. The maximum amount of sick leave payment is 38317.86 for two weeks), and with a high prevalence in Russian companies of a variable (non—guaranteed) part of wages, which can be reduced by management if employees refuse to continue working during illness. Of course, the risk of loss in earnings does not exist for low-paid workers; and serious illnesses requiring hospitalization are always accompanied by receiving sick leave.
4 The main results of the sociological survey of residents of megacities // RANEPA. 2017. [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://social.ranepa.ru/tsentry-i-instituty/tsentr-sotsialno-politicheskogo-monitoringa/issledovaniya/49-statisticheskij-analiz-effektivnosti-gosudarstvennogo-upravleniya/48-reports-presentations/raw-data?function=downloadFile&file_id=5zJCS1lC
5 Social guarantees for Russians are more important than strengthening order in the country - survey // Vedomosti. 2016. Социальные гарантии россиянам важнее укрепления порядка в стране: опрос. Ведомости [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://vedomosti.ru
6 Podtserob M. In which companies sick employees are forced to work // Vedomosti. 2019. В каких компаниях заболевшие сотрудники вынуждены работать. Ведомости [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://vedomosti.ru)
A similar situation occurs when the population assesses the level of social guarantees for the disabled. A study on the employment of people with disabilities by Everland and the Tsaregorodtseva agency showed that 32% of respondents became disabled in adulthood; 90% of them were forced to leave work, 53% were unable to find a job after that.7 As a result, disability benefits are the main source of income for 63% of respondents. 66% of respondents stated high dissatisfaction with their income, which is aggravated by the difficulties of employment. It is noteworthy that 18% of respondents who declared satisfaction with their income level, include not only entrepreneurs and employees under employment contracts, but also the self-employed.8
The right to vacation leave, enshrined in Russian legislation, does not mean the mandatory exercise of this right. Thus, a sociological study of the Russian service Aviasales showed that in 2021-2022, about 12% of Russians did not take a vacation at all; 13% went on vacation once in two years, 27% went on vacation twice. The presented results reflect psychological state of the respondents, contributing to the formation of depressive states, exhaustion and burnout.9 This is significantly different from the "pre-COVID" statistics, according to which 51% of Russians went on vacation every six months.10
In general, the results of sociological surveys describe the ongoing transformation in the labor market from the perspective of institutional factors' effect. For example, a tendency for citizens to refuse to exercise their own social rights can be noted against the background of dissatisfaction with the social guarantees provided.
On the one hand, this may provoke the shift of the employed population into informal employment or into new forms of employment. For example, the RANEPA sociological study empirically reflected the growth of the positive attitude of employed people in Russia to "shadow" forms of labor activity: in 2013, 45.6% of respondents were in favor of doing work without official income registration, in 2019 this indicator increased by 27.3 percentage
7 In Russia, 44% of people with disabilities are looking for work // Social Information Agency. 2022. В России 44% людей с инвалидностью ищут работу: Агентство социальной информации [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://asi.org.ru
8 In Russia, 44% of people with disabilities are looking for work // Social Information Agency. 2022. В России 44% людей с инвалидностью ищут работу: Агентство социальной информации [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://asi.org.ru
9 Likhacheva S. Every eighth inhabitant of Russia was left without a vacation // Russian service "Aviasales". 2023. Каждый восьмой житель России остался без отпуска [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://prezly.com
10 Malgavko S. Russians told how often they take vacations and how they
prepare for it // TASS. 2020. Россияне рассказали, как часто берут отпуск
и как к нему готовятся: ТАСС [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://tass.ru
points, reaching 72.9% of respondents [1]. The study of Pokida A. and Zybunovskaya N. (2019) also confirmed the hypothesis of a greater propensity of the self-employed to deliberately violate the current legislation with them being prone to informal labor relations, non-payment of taxes, etc. [2]. This is confirmed by the results of the RANEPA survey, according to which 19.7% of the self-employed in their main job express approval for informal economic activity, while for employees with employment contracts this figure is 11.7% [1].
On the other hand, the refusal to exercise one's own social rights contributes to an increase in the role of state participation in ensuring the social rights of the population of the Russian Federation, expressed, among other things, in the growing interest of the government in the legal regulation of social security of new forms of employment. In order to determine the feasibility of such changes, it is necessary to analyze the existing demand for social guarantees in new forms of employment.
Of the whole range of social rights and guarantees of Russian citizens in the context of this study, it is of particular interest to identify the deficit of the guarantees aimed at the citizens' rights to work (Article 37 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation) and access to social security (Article 39 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation), which are correlated with labor relations.
Taking into account the fact that most of the Russian workers involved in new forms of employment are self-employed, registered as payers of the "Professional Income Tax", the study uses this category (self-employed) for further analysis of the legal access of workers of new forms of employment to social protection.
ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIAL SECURITY DEFICIT BASED ON THE "LEGAL APPROACH"
Due to the limited statistical data pertained to the social security coverage of the employed population involved in new forms of employment, the use of the "legal approach" (i.e., on the basis of content analysis of regulatory legal acts in force with respect to citizen's right to a particular type of social security) seems most appropriate to the task of assessing the deficit of social security. This approach is used, in particular, by the International Labor Organization, and is also reflected in the works of many scientists, including colleagues from the Republic of South Africa [3].
RIGHT TO WORK
In accordance with Article 37 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, everyone has the right for work remuneration in the amount not lower than the established minimum wage. Article 3 of Federal Law No. 82-FZ of 06/19/2000 "On the minimum wage" states that the use of the minimum wage is possible only "for regulating wages and determining the benefits for temporary disability, pregnancy and childbirth, as well as for other purposes of compulsory social insurance. The application of the minimum wage for other purposes is not allowed".11 Then, the right of a citizen of the Russian Federation to receive remuneration for work in the amount of at least the minimum wage is guaranteed only in labor relations, which is confirmed by the fact that the minimum wage is regulated by the Labor Code of the Russian Federation. Unlike an employee protected by labor legislation, self-employed individuals have no guarantees of minimum wages, of payments for the idle period and generally of receiving income in one period or another.
The right of citizens to social protection in case of the unemployment is regulated by Law No. 10321 "On Employment of the population in the Russian Federation" of 04/19/1991, according to which all citizens have the right to receive unemployment benefits. One of the most important criteria for recognizing the "unemployed" status of a citizen is his (or her) lack of work (Article 3).12 The fact of self-employment is equated to having a job, and therefore the self-employed cannot be registered as unemployed and cannot receive unemployment benefits until they remove themselves from the register as payers of the "Professional Income Tax" (hence, lose the self-employed status). Thus, the termination of the registered activity of a self-employed person allows a citizen to apply for unemployment benefits.
With regard to vacations and labor protection, enshrined in Article 37 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, these labor rights reflected in the Labor Code of the Russian Federation are valid only in labor relations. Since the interaction of the self-employed and the employer is carried out on the basis of a civil contract, it is assumed that the self-employed agree to the conditions of the contract. Self-employed according to Article 5 of Federal Law
11 Federal Law No. 82-FZ of 19.06.2000 (as amended on 19.12.2022) "On the minimum wage" // ConsultantPlus. 2023. Статья 3 \ КонсультантПлюс: [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://consultant.ru
12 The Law of the Russian Federation "On employment of the population in the Russian Federation" dated 19.04.1991 N 1032-1 // Consultant Plus. 2023. Закон РФ "О занятости населения в Российской Федерации" от 19.04.1991 № 1032-1 (последняя редакция)\КонсультантПлюс [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://consultant.ru)
No. 135 have the right to be included in compulsory social insurance against industrial accidents and occupational diseases if the clause is prescribed in the contract.13 It is also assumed that the self-employed do not follow the rules of the internal labor regulations of the customer organization and have the opportunity to independently plan his (or her) rest time.
Labor protection, as defined by Article 209 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, is "a system for preserving the life and health of employees in the course of their work, including legal, socio-economic, organizational and technical, sanitary and hygienic, therapeutic and preventive, rehabilitation and other measures".14 Letter of the Ministry of Labor dated May 17, 2019, No. 15-2/OOG-1157 explains the need to conduct occupational safety briefings for the self-employed,15 to include the duties and responsibilities of the parties aimed at ensuring the safety of working conditions and occupational safety in a civil contract. Nevertheless, such a decision raises manyquestions and disagreements among employers due to the increasing risks of recognizing such emerging relationships as "labor relations" [4], which is especially relevant in the absence of a legally approved legal status of "self-employed" (or "platform workers"). So, paragraph 15 of the Review of Judicial Practice of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation No. 3 (2018) states: "If the relations of the parties fit the labor relations, then, regardless of their legal formalization, they are a subject to the provisions of labor legislation and other acts containing labor law norms".16 This provision is reflected in judicial practice on "substitution of labor relations" (for example, Definition No. 66-KG17-10 of September 25, 2017 or the Decision of February 25, 2022 in case No. A65-31075/2021).17 As a result, there is a misunderstanding about the boundaries of the responsibility of the employer and the self-employed
13 Federal Law "On compulsory social insurance against industrial accidents and occupational diseases" dated 24.07.1998 № 125-FZ // ConsultantPlus. 2023. Федеральный закон "Об обязательном социальном страховании от несчастных случаев на производстве и профессиональных заболеваний" от 24.07.1998 № 125-ФЗ (последняя редакция) \ КонсультантПлюс [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://consultant.ru
14 The Labor Code of the Russian Federation // ConsultantPlus. 2023. ТК РФ Статья 209. Основные понятия \ КонсультантПлюс [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://consultant.ru
15 Letter of the Ministry of Labor dated May 17, 2019 No. 15-2/OOG-1157 // Labor protection in Russia. 2019. Вопрос: О проведении инструктажей по охране труда в отношении лиц, участвующих в производственной деятельности по гражданско-правовому договору. (Письмо Минтруда России от 17.05.2019 № 15-2/ООГ-1157) [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://ohranatruda.ru
16 Review of judicial practice of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation No. 3 // Supreme Court of the Russian Federation. 2018. Обзор судебной практики Верховного Суда Российской Федерации № 3 (2018). Утвержден Президиумом Верховного Суда Российской Федерации 14 ноября 2018 г. [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://vsrf.ru
17 Decision of February 25, 2022 in case no. A65-31075/2021 // Judicial and
regulatory acts of the Russian Federation. 2022. Решение от 25 февраля
2022 г. по делу № А65-31075/2021: СудАкт.ру [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://sudact.ru
with high risk of transition from civil law to labor relations.
One of the most traumatic areas of activity, where self-employment is currently widespread, is construction. According to some estimates, more than 9%18 of self-employed are engaged in this type of activity; this estimation goes up to 17.7% in some researches [5]. This issue brings forward the idea of using the labor of the self-employed, as well as the differentiation of the responsibility of the customer and the contractor. In a way, this "boundary" of the responsibility of the parties in the field of construction is lined out in Russian regulations. So, part 2 of Article 52 of the Town-Planning Code of the Russian Federation defines that only individual entrepreneurs and/or legal entities that are members of self-regulating organizations in the field of construction have the right to carry out work under construction contracts.19 However, this does not limit the possibilities of attracting the self-employed to participate in construction work on the basis of civil law contracts.
The Labor Code of the Russian Federation defines the procedure for resolving labor disputes and terminating labor relations, which creates some "basis" for regulating these relations. So, if a problematic issue arises between an employee and an employer that is not regulated in the employment contract, it can be resolved through an appeal to the Labor Code. Such an approach cannot be used to resolve disputes involving the self-employed, the relations with which are attributed to the sphere of civil law regulation, which makes disputes "non-labor" by definition.
THE RIGHT TO SOCIAL SECURITY: PENSIONS
In the Russian Federation, three types of pensions can be distinguished: state pension, mandatory pension insurance and non-state (voluntary) pension insurance schemes.
State pension provision is financed by the federal budget of the Russian Federation, regulated by Federal Law No. 166-FZ dated 15.12.2001 "On State Pension Provision in the Russian Federation" and is aimed at pension provision of federal state civil servants; military personnel; participants of the Great Patriotic War; citizens affected by radiation and man-made disasters; cosmonauts; citizens from among employees flight test personnel; disabled citizens;
18 Number of freelancers reaches 18% in Russia // Analytical center NAFI. 2017. [Электронный ресурс] URL:https://nafi.ru/analytics/frilanserov-v-rossii-uzhe-18/
19 Town-planning Code of the Russian Federation of 29.12.2004 № 190-FZ // ConsultantPlus. 2023. "Градостроительный кодекс Российской Федерации" от 29.12.2004 №190-ФЗ (ред. от 28.04.2023) [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://consultant.ru
citizens in volunteer formations (Article 4 Federal Law No. 166). In addition to a specific type of work (civil servants, military, astronauts, etc.), the law regulates the payment of social pensions to disabled citizens.20
A social pension means "a monthly state monetary payment that is provided to citizens in case of disability or loss of a breadwinner, upon reaching the age established by law; or to disabled citizens in order to provide them with means of subsistence" (Article 2 of Federal Law No. 166).
Disabled citizens entitled to receive a social pension in accordance with Federal Law No. 166-FZ of 15.12.2001 "On State Pension Provision in the Russian Federation" related to the labor market are disabled persons (groups I, II, III) and citizens of the Russian Federation who have reached the age of 70 and 65 (Article 11 Federal Law No. 166). Thus, all citizens of the Russian Federation have the right to a social pension for old age or disability, regardless of the employment, work activity and/or experience.21
Compulsory pension insurance, on the contrary, covers only the "insured" part of the population that consists of employees working under employment contracts, self-supporting individuals (individual entrepreneurs or persons engaged in private practice), farms etc. (Article 7 of Federal Law No. 167-FZ of 15.12.2001 "On Mandatory Pension Insurance in the Russian Federation").22 Unlike the state pension provision, pensions within the framework of compulsory pension insurance are carried out at the expense of the employer's insurance contributions.
Self-employed citizens and individual entrepreneurs who have switched to a special tax regime ("Professional Income Tax") are not insurers under mandatory (compulsory) pension insurance schemes. In this regard, the risk of a social protection deficit for pension provision for first-time citizens who have entered the labor market, who have chosen the form of self-employment, and for persons moving from labor relations to new forms of employment, is evident.
In the future the increase in the number of working citizens who do not participate in the compulsory social insurance system, contributes to the risk of a shortage of funds from the Social Fund of Russia aimed
20 Federal Law No. 166-FZ of 15.12.2001 (as amended on 28.04.2023) "On State pension provision in the Russian Federation" // ConsultantPlus. 2023. Статья 11. Условия назначения социальной пенсии нетрудоспособным гражданам \ КонсультантПлюс [Электронный ресурс] URL: https:// consultant.ru
21 It is important to note that in some cases, foreign citizens also have the right to a social or labor pension.
22 Federal Law No. 167-FZ of 15.12.2001 (as amended on 18.03.2023) "On
compulsory pension insurance in the Russian Federation" // ConsultantPlus. 2023. Статья 7. Застрахованные лица \ КонсультантПлюс [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://consultant.ru
at fulfilling social obligations to citizens (in particular, to pay social pensions).
As a measure to reduce the deficit of social protection of the self-employed, several amendments to the legislation were adopted (paragraph 6 of Article 3 of Federal Law No. 425-FZ of 27.11.2018 "On Amendments to Parts One and Two of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation and Certain Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation"), allowing citizens - payers of "Professional tax income", to voluntarily enter into legal relations on compulsory pension insurance.23
Non-state pension insurance is carried out on a voluntary basis within the framework of contracts with non-state pension funds, the activities of which, in turn, are regulated by Federal Law No. 75-FZ of 07.05.1998 "On Non-state Pension Funds". This type of insurance is additional to compulsory pension insurance and differs in the ability of the insured person to regulate the terms of the insurance contract (which is impossible with compulsory insurance, where the insurance rules and insurance premium rates are dictated by the government.
As a result, it can be said that in Russia the pension provision of the population is characterized by universality of coverage, but at the same time the fact of employment and its duration, the amount of accumulated insurance premiums from labor income actually determine the amount of pension received by the individual (and its classification as "social" or "labor").
THE RIGHT TO SOCIAL SECURITY: TEMPORARY DISABILITY
Receiving benefits for temporary disability related to illness or maternity is regulated in Russia primarily by Federal Law No. 255-FZ of 29.12.2006 "On Compulsory Social Insurance in case of temporary disability and in connection with maternity". Article 2 of this Federal Law specifies that compulsory social insurance in case of temporary disability and in connection with maternity are eligible for people working under employment contracts; government civil and municipal employees; members of a production cooperative; clergymen; persons sentenced to imprisonment and involved in paid work. Individual entrepreneurs and persons conducting private practice (notaries, farms, etc. - Part 3 of Article 2 of the Federal Law 255) may enter in agreement with the Social Fund of the Russian Federation on voluntary social insurance (Article 4.5 of the Federal Law 255).
23 Federal Law No. 425-FZ of 27.11.2018 "On Amendments to Parts One and Two of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation and Certain Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation" // ConsultantPlus. 2023. Статья 3\Консультант-Плюс [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://consultant.ru
However, the self-employed, as follows from the Letter of the Social Insurance Fund of the Russian Federation No. 02-09-11/06-04-4346 dated 02/28/2020, being unnamed in Part 3 of art. 2 FZ-255, cannot be registered "as policyholders who voluntarily entered into legal relations on compulsory social insurance in case of temporary disability and in connection with maternity and paying insurance premiums for themselves".24 At the same time, this idea does not cancel the possibility of the self-employed to receive a one-time allowance at the birth of a child or a child care allowance for up to one and a half years.
Thus, in order to understand whether social security for temporary disability covers those employed in new forms of employment, it is necessary to determine the status and type of relations that arise between an employee in new forms and an employer. If an individual carries out his (or her) activities while in an employment relationship (for example, remote employment), then they can enjoy all the described social guarantees. If the employed person in the new forms carries out his activities as self-employed, he cannot act as a recipient of temporary disability payments due to illness or maternity.
Social security of the population in a situation of disability is regulated by analogy with pension provision. On the one hand, Federal Law No. 166-FZ of 15.12.2001 "On State Pension Provision in the Russian Federation" establishes social pensions for disabled people, who have completely or partially lost their ability to work. On the other hand, for persons working under employment contracts, social insurance of disability is mandatory in accordance with Federal Law No. 125-FZ of 24.07.1998 "On compulsory social insurance against industrial accidents and occupational diseases". It is important to note that in this case, social insurance covers only industrial accidents and occupational diseases related to the performance of the employee's labor functions under an employment contract, in connection with which the "guilt" of the insured and the relation of his activities (during which he was injured) to labor is of a considerate importance. It is noteworthy that Article 5 of Federal Law No. 125 clarifies that "individuals working on the basis of a civil contract are subject to compulsory social insurance against industrial accidents and occupational diseases, if, in accordance
24 Letter of the Social Insurance Fund of the Russian Federation No. 02-0911/06-04-4346 dated 02/28/2020 "On registration of self-employed citizens as policyholders who voluntarily entered into legal relations on compulsory social insurance in case of temporary disability and in connection with maternity" // ConsultantPlus. 2023. <Письмо> ФСС РФ от 28.02.2020 № 02-09-11/06-04-4346 "О регистрации самозанятых граждан в качестве страхователей, добровольно вступивших в правоотношения по обязательному социальному страхованию на случай временной нетрудоспособности" [Электронный ресурс] URL: https:// consultant.ru
Table 1 / Таблица 1
Comparison of legal access to social rights and guarantees of workers under employment contracts and in new forms of employment in the Russian Federation* / Сравнение сложившегося в РФ правового доступа к социальным правам и гарантиям работников, занятых по трудовым договорам, и занятых в новых формах*
Social rights / Социальные права Social guarantees / Социальные гарантии Workers under employment contracts / Работники по трудовым договорам New forms of employment workers / Работники в новых формах занятости
Right to social security Pension provisions
State pensions +
Compulsory pension insurance +
Voluntary pension insurance + +
Social security in case of:
Temporary disability: illness +
Temporary disability: childbirth +
Disability + +
Right to work Income at least at the minimum wage level +
Protection against unemployment + limited
Vacation +
Labor safety + limited
Labor disputes +
* Letter of the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of the Russian Federation dated August 5, 2022 No. 17-1/B-103 On the Specifics of Compulsory Social Insurance in Case of Temporary Disability and in Connection with Maternity of Persons Working under GPH Contracts, the subject of which is the performance of works and (or) the provision of services // System GARANT. - 2022. / Письмо Министерства труда и социальной защиты РФ от 5 августа 2022 г. № 17-1/В-103 "Об особенностях обязательного социального страхования на случай временной нетрудоспособности"
Source/Источник: compiled by the authors / составлено авторами.
with the contracts signed, the customer is obliged to pay insurance to the insurer contributions".
As a result, it can be said that employees of new forms of employment can be included in the system of compulsory social insurance against industrial accidents and occupational diseases, provided that this clause is included in the contract on the basis of which the self-employed and the employer interact.
The big change in the social security system in Russia in 2022-2023 was the unification of the Pension Fund of Russia and the Social Insurance Fund into a single Pension and Social Insurance Fund of the Russian Federation (the Social Fund of Russia). Alongside this unification, there have been some changes in social insurance issues. Thus, in the Letter of the Ministry of Labor dated 05.08.2022 No. 17-1/B-103, it is explained that from January 1, 2023, employers must pay insurance premiums not only for employees, but also for employees working on the basis of civil law contracts, in order to provide the latter with payments for temporary disability due to illness and in connection with motherhood. An important addition is the fact that this innovation does not apply to the self-employed.25 Taking into account the predominance of
25 Letter of the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of the Russian Federation dated August 5, 2022 No. 17-1/B-103 On the Specifics of Compulsory Social Insurance in Case of Temporary Disability and in Connection with Maternity of Persons Working under GPH Contracts, the subject of which is the performance of works and (or) the provision of services // System GARANT. 2022. Письмо Министерства труда и социальной защиты РФ от 5 августа 2022 г. N 17-1/В-103 Об особенностях обязательного социального страхования на случай временной нетрудоспособности..
self-employed among platform workers and in other new forms of employment, the question of how this innovation will affect the social security of workers in new forms of employment remains open and requires further study.
A comparison of the current legal access in the Russian Federation to social rights and guarantees of workers under employment contracts and in new forms of employment is presented in Table 1.
As can be seen from Table 4, workers in new forms of employment have legal access to a much smaller number of social guarantees provided by the government, especially when exercising the right of citizens to work. Thus, the conducted research has shown that many social guarantees of the population are eligible only in labor relations, at the expense of legally fixed obligations of the employer. As a result, workers in new forms (with the exception of remote workers hired under an employment contract) do not have equal access to certain social guarantees related to the right to work comparing with the employees under employment contracts.
ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIAL SECURITY DEFICIT BASED ON A SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH
The sociological approach to assessing the social security deficit, in contrast to the legal approach, is not so much based on the study of the availability of law, as on the correlation of existing reality with the expectations and needs of people.
A study by Pokida A. and Zybunovskaya N. (2020) showed that 18.3% of the self-employed are concerned about the lack of the possibility of obtaining social guarantees, 20.9% of respondents are concerned about wage guarantees [6]. In other words, every fifth self-employed person would like to be able to use social guarantees and benefits. Nevertheless, the difficulty of finding a job (orders) worries every second self-employed (47.6%). The conducted sociological survey also proved the fact of a relatively lower interest of the self-employed in social security in comparison with employees under employment contracts. For example, the share of the self-employed who are worried about the possibility of losing pension provision in the future is 50.8%; for the employed working under employment contracts this figure reaches 65.2%. A similar situation is observed when analyzing the attitude of the employed to the possibility of losing free medical care: the share of the self-employed concerned about this is 59.8%, while for the share of employees it is 72.1% [6].
A study by Zyukov P. et al. (2023) on assessing the attractiveness of legislative initiatives related to the development of self-employment and platform employment highlighted the importance of increasing the income limit (for maintaining the status of self-employed), expanding the list of activities and the number of countries whose citizens can register as self-employed as the most relevant initiatives. The idea of voluntary social insurance has also received many responses [7].
However, based on the results of the RANEPA sociological survey, a relatively low orientation of the self-employed for the future can be noted (including low or absent interest in self-financing insurance against possible social risks), expressed, among other things, in the increasing value of "earning now". 49.0% of respondents working under employment contracts prefer "Good earnings now, even with the risk of failures in the future", whereas for self-employed this indicator reaches 62.3% [5].
Pokida A. Zybunovskaya N. (2020) are sure that self-employment is a "form of survival", especially in conditions of shortage of qualified jobs in many regions of the Russian Federation. And the ability to rely on one's own strength is limited by the human and temporary factor, which indicates the need to provide the self-employed with social guarantees from the government (in relation to pensions, medical care, etc.) [6]. In the Russian Federation, the system of social protection for pension and medical provision is characterized by universal coverage, which means that it applies to the self-employed and to those employed in other new forms of employment.
Similar conclusions are presented by the All-Russian Public Organization of Small and Medium-sized Enterprises "Opora Rossii". According to one of their pilot surveys with a large focus on women (92.6% of respondents are women), 92.1% of respondents are in favor of the opportunity to receive temporary disability benefits in case of illness. At the same time, 74.6% declared their consent to pay insurance premiums.26 Similar results were obtained by the Center for Strategic Research in the framework of the study "Platform employment in Russia-2021". The survey showed the desire of the self-employed working on platforms to have paid leave, medical insurance and payments in connection with injuries [8]. It is noteworthy that in case of illness among the self-employed, only 18% go to work [8], which is significantly lower than the number of employees under employment contracts that continue working even while sick. The study revealed that 77% of the self-employed working on platforms do not participate in voluntary pension provision, which is largely due to low incomes (as was stated by 20% of respondents).27
This idea is highlighted by Makarov E. and Kuzmina N. et al. (2022) in speaking about their doubts about the possibility of self-employed participation in voluntary insurance due to the relatively low income of payers of the "Professional Income Tax" [9]. For comparison: in 2019, the average monthly income of payers of a professional income tax (meaning self-employed) did not exceed 18 thousand rubles, while the average accrued salary of an employee under employment contract was more than 47 thousand rubles [9].
This is especially important, taking into account the growing involvement of young people in new forms of employment and self-employment, in particular. The survey showed that more than 70% of the students surveyed are aware of the possibilities of connecting to the platforms and acquiring self-employed status; 31% have already registered on the platform (or installed the "My Tax" application). At the same time, for students, new forms of employment are not only a source of additional income, but also the opportunity to develop the competencies necessary for further work by carrying out legal labor activity [10]. As a result, in the absence of experience in dealing with insurance risks, young people do not obtain an understanding
26 Social guarantees and self-employment // Committee for the development of the Institute of self-employed of the All-Russian Public Organization of Small and Medium-sized Enterprises "Opora Rossii". 2022. 7 p. ОПРОС ФСС СЗ [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://opora.ru
27 Mamonova E. Who will provide platform employees with social guarantees, experts discussed at the CSR // Rossiyskaya Gazeta. - 2021. - URL: Кто обеспечит платформенных занятых социальными гарантиями, обсудили эксперты на площадке ЦСР: Российская газета [Электронный ресурс] URL: https://rg.ru
* SPP - State pension provision, CPI - Compulsory pension insurance, VPI - Voluntary pension insurance / ГПО - Государственное пенсионное обеспечение, ОПС - Обязательное пенсионное страхование, ДПС - Добровольное пенсионное страхование
** Compiled by the authors. Due to the fact that self-employed predominate among the workers in new forms of employment, the assessment of access and demand for social protection is carried out with an emphasis on the study of self-employment / В связи с тем, что в числе работников новых форм занятости преобладают самозанятые, оценка доступа и спроса на социальную защиту осуществляется именно с упором на исследование самозанятости. Designations / Обозначения:
A - workers in new forms of employment have an access to social guarantees.
B - in general, there is no universal access to social guarantees for workers in new forms of employment, but there are exceptions. C - there is no access to social guarantees for workers in new forms of employment. X - there is a demand for social protection from workers in new forms of employment.
Y - there is no generally formed demand for social protection from workers in new forms of employment, but there are some willing. Z - there is no demand for social protection from workers in new forms of employment.
А - наличие доступа к социальным гарантиям у работников новых форм занятости.
В - в целом, всеобщего доступа к социальным гарантиям у работников новых форм занятости нет, но есть исключения. С - нет доступа к социальным гарантиям у работников новых форм занятости. X - есть спрос на социальную защиту со стороны работников новых форм занятости.
Y - общего сформированного спроса на социальную защиту со стороны работников новых форм занятости нет, но есть желающие. Z - нет спроса на социальную защиту со стороны работников новых форм занятости.
Table 2/ Таблица 2
Social security deficit of workers in new forms of employment in the Russian labor market**/ Дефицит социальной защиты работников новых форм занятости на российском рынке труда**
Social security deficit: the sociological approach
Pension provision Social security Right to work
SPP* CPI* VPI* Illness Maternity Disability Wage Protection against unemployment Vacation
Legal social security deficit Pension provision SPP* АX
CPI* CZ
VPI* AZ
Social security Illness СY
Maternity СY
Disability AX
Right to work Wage CХ
Protection against unemployment AY
Vacation CX
Source/Источник: compiled by the authors / составлено авторами.
of the need for social protection coverage, which indicates a growing shortage of insurance culture in Russia.
The low involvement of the self-employed in the voluntary pension insurance scheme is also indicated by different works, according to which only 0.3% of the self-employed (as payers of the "Professional Income Tax") used the right to buy insurance pension contributions [11]. The results of the stakeholder interviewing showed that all the surveyed stakeholders are concerned about the need to provide social guarantees to platform employees. Many initiatives coming from "below" (i.e. from the platforms) are aimed at creating a certain level of social security for the self-employed, which, in turn, is dictated by the desire of the platforms to ensure the quality of services provided to the consumer (for example, courtesy, professionalism, security, etc.), as well as by the existing competition for human resources [11]. At the same time, according to the estimates of the self-employed, working on platforms - trade unions,
executive authorities, ministries and departments are not able to represent their interests. Only 2% of the self-employed trust trade unions, 7% - ministries and departments, 8% - deputies and regional executive authorities. For comparison, 22% of self-employed trust platforms to protect their interests [12]. Based on this, it can be assumed that, from the point of view of the self-employed, initiatives coming from "below" are more promising.
The analysis showed that in connection with the transformation of the modern labor market in Russia, the attitude of the employed (including in new forms) to official employment is changing: against the background of the growing concern of citizens about social rights and guarantees caused by a growing sense of insecurity, the "focus of importance" is changing among the employed population: in place of stability in the future comes the idea of increased value of earnings "now". This process helps to minimize the interest of the self-employed in participating in social insurance programs, especially with the revealed tendency to
form a positive attitude to "shadow" activities, which again actualizes the problem of increasing the influence of informal labor institutions in the absence of an insurance culture among the population.
Table 2 presents a matrix characterizing the problem field of the situation of the social security deficit of workers in new forms of employment, compiled by the authors on the basis of the results of the analysis using legal and sociological approaches.
The social security deficit through the eyes of the self-employed is marked in red - these are the areas of social protection where workers in new forms of employment would like to have social guarantees, but they are have no access to them yet or the access is limited.
The pale green color indicates the areas of social protection to which the self-employed have access (and can receive social guarantees), with the low significance of these social guarantees from the position of the self-employed.
The green color indicates the areas of social protection to which the self-employed have access and for which there is a demand from the self-employed.
The analysis showed that the self-employed, in general, are provided with almost the same basic level of social security as workers in traditional forms of employment. The exceptions are basic social guarantees related to labor, such as minimum wage, unemployment and temporary disability benefits, labor pensions. And despite the fact that it is possible for the self-employed to receive unemployment benefits (by giving up the status of "self-employed"), and/or to voluntarily join mandatory pension insurance program, the regulation of the minimum income (wage) and/or of temporary disability benefits currently does not cover self-employed and other new forms of employment.
Thus, the results of the study indicate a connection between the social security deficit of workers in new forms of employment (self-employment, platform employment), the lack of conscious interest among citizens to participate in insurance of possible social risks in the future, as well as the current need to purchase insurance coverage at their own expense. Such a behavioral model is a consequence of the "responsibility imbalance" that has historically developed in Russia, in which the employee acts exclusively as an "insured person" and a "beneficiary", and the financial burden for the "social package" falls on the employer and/or the government.
Given the transformation of the labor market and the active influx of the population into new forms of employment (including through the
transition from labor relations to self-employment and entrepreneurship), the absence of an insurance culture does not automatically lead to a redistribution of responsibility between participants in the social protection system. With a decrease in the number of employers and a decrease in their spending on social protection, the demand for social insurance services among the population has not yet been formed. In many ways, this is due to the unwillingness of the self-employed population to lose part of their income (forming "deferred consumption"). If we turn to the figures of the average income of the self-employed, their behavior is largely understandable. In these circumstances, the problem of providing the population with social protection intersects with the problem of combating poverty and low-income.
The other side of this issue is the obligations of the government to provide the population with social protection, enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation. The decline in participants in pension and social insurance programs today leads to a gradual increase in the social protection budget deficit in the future, in which it will be increasingly difficult to fulfill these obligations. It can be assumed that this is one of the main reasons determining the government's interest in expanding activity in relation to social protection policy, especially with respect to the access of the economically active population to certain programs and support measures. At the same time, workers in new forms of employment, guided to a greater extent by the value of "earning now", do not show significant interest in voluntary insurance programs. In such a situation, it is possible to assume an increase in the gap between the satisfaction/ sense of security among workers in new forms of employment and their growing anxiety about the social policy being implemented in the country.
CONCLUSION
Russia is currently in a "transitional stage", when an active search is being carried out for a balance between legal access to social protection and demand for specific areas of social protection. This requires gradual, careful work on the part of the government, with having consultations with "new social partners" (for example, digital labor platforms and platform workers), as well as the self-employed and their associations. In this vein, the development of new instruments of social partnership and state regulation of mechanisms of social protection of the population involved in new forms of employment seems to be an important and priority task for the near future.
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ИНФОРМАЦИЯ ОБ АВТОРАХ / ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Ol'ga V. Zabelina - Dr. Sci. (Econ.), Professor, Federal State Budgetary Institution "All-Russian Research Institute of Labor" of the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of Russia, Moscow, Russia
Ольга Викторовна Забелина - доктор экономических наук, профессор, ФГБУ «ВНИИ труда» Минтруда
России, Москва, Россия
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7723-2852
Zabelina_OV@vcot.info
Mariya V. Sergeeva - Cand. Sci. (Econ.), Senior Researcher, Federal State Budgetary Institution "All-Russian Research Institute of Labor" of the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of Russia, Moscow, Russia Мария Вячеславовна Сергеева - кандидат экономических наук, старший научный сотрудник ФГБУ «ВНИИ труда» Минтруда России, Москва, Россия https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2026-325X msergeeva@vcot.info
Conflicts of Interest Statement: The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare. Конфликт интересов: авторы заявляют об отсутствии конфликта интересов.
The article was submitted on 01.03.2024; revised on 26.03.2024 and accepted for publication on 27.03.2024. The authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Статья поступила в редакцию 01.03.2024; после рецензирования 26.03.2024, принята к публикации 27.03.2024. Авторы прочитали и одобрили окончательный вариант рукописи.
