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20Освещение темы терроризма в аудиовизуальных СМИ ЕС на примере Euronews
Мартыненко Елена Викторовна,
д.п.н., профессор, кафедра теории и истории журналистики, Российский университет дружбы народов E-mail: [email protected]
Наврузшоева Ханифа,
магистр, кафедра теории и истории журналистики, Российский университет дружбы народов E-mail: [email protected]
В настоящей статье анализируется европейский медиа дискурс в контексте освещения терроризма на примере одного из ведущих новостных каналов. Освещение терроризма в СМИ содержит в себе две основные угрозы. Первая - это «спираль насилия», которая возникает вследствие «эффекта иммунизации». Постоянное освещение терроризма «закаляет» общество, повышая порог приемлемого уровня насилия в нем, и террористам приходится идти на более жестокие действия, чтобы привлечь к себе внимание. В этом и заключается «спираль насилия». Вторая - «эффект заражения». Эта опасность заключается в том, что деятельность СМИ сама по себе способствует распространению терроризма, невольно обеспечивая данному явлению высокую медийность. В статье рассматриваются конкретные примеры, относящиеся к первому и второму векторам риска, а также воздействие информационной политики в контексте освещения терроризма на европейское общество. При подготовке исследования авторами применялся системно-аналитический метод, метод социологического анализа, историко-аналитический метод и метод контент-анализа.
Ключевые слова: СМИ, ЕС, политика, общественное мнение, терроризм, опасность.
Introduction
The fundamental document which lays the subsequent foundation for resolutions is the Charter of the European Union for Human Rights. The aspect that interests us the most is spelled out in No. 12, paragraph 2, of the Charter's 2nd legal title, affirming freedom of expression and information [4]. In the European Union, both on an individual and inter-union level, measures to formulate an ethical framework for the work of journalists are being taken.
From 2014 to 2019, a list of resolutions were adopted: the European Parliament resolution of 2018 on pluralism and media freedom in the European Union [8], the European Parliament resolution of April 17, 2018 on gender equality in the media sector of the European Union [7], the directive of the European Parliament and the European Council of October 2, 2018 on the coordination of the supply of audiovisual media [6].
Media Discourse on Terrorism in Europe: historical backgrounds
The possibilities of the media in the formation of public opinion are well known. Back in the last century, many theories were developed regarding the influence exerted by television, as this was an innovation and the scientific community was worried about the degree of influence that the media acquired. One of the paradigms that explain the degree of influence of the media is the theory of the "magic bullet" [10]. It is the verbal presentation of a graphic shot. That is, the theory says that the news is a "bullet" by which the media identified with weapons shoot at the head of a passive viewer.
Media discourse is formed from a clash of values. For example, the British media consider clashes between Sharia and Western values of freedom and democracy, arguing that the latter are the only true ones. Italian media see disrespect for Western values by migrants. The problem of discourse is based on a civi-lizational and cultural-value basis. For example, in a German newspaper it was said about the incompatibility of values, since in the Islamic world, freedom and democracy are not the highest values for the benefit of human development. Based on how European countries view Muslims, a corresponding opinion is formed about migrants - in particular, they are seen as a threat to the social foundations of European societies.
The term terrorism comes from "terrere", which means bullying [13]. The phenomenon itself has deeper historical roots. It can be attributed to the period of eastern tyranny, Hellenic or Roman, to the Middle Ages in Europe, to bourgeois revolutions, etc. In general, the phenomenon was inherent in any period of human
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social life. Thus, the phenomenon can be described in two words, which is its basic principles - the fear generated by violence and its subsequent manipulation [11].
A new stage in the history of terrorism began in 1967. This was an important stage for the Middle East, as Israel showed its military superiority. Due to a number of victories by the Israeli military, in particular the victory in the 1967 war, Al-Fatah, the Palestinian National Liberation Movement, was born.
If we need to understand the term "terrorism", which encompasses many categorically different movements and groups, then we should create a common typology. Excluding state terror, we will single out the difference between terrorist groups based on left and right political ideology; nationalist, separatist movements; and political and religious sects. In most cases, terrorism is a political strategy, while forceful influence is aimed at physical influence, terrorism is psychological.
In this research we are more interested in the phenomenon of Islamist terrorism, so we should focus on understanding its essence. There is nothing new in fundamentalist terrorism, it has had a place to be earlier, however, its revival has recently been observed and it should be noted right away that this statement is true not only for Islam.
Islamism originates from Egypt. The founder of the Muslim Brotherhood organization, Hassan al-Banna, was also the ideologist of political Islam - Islamism. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Egypt was under British rule; therefore, the Muslim Brotherhood strove for the country's independence and the revival of Islamic values in Egyptian society. The greatest contribution to the development of the ideas of radical Is-lamism was made by Sayyid Qutb. From his biography it follows that, again, a great influence was exerted by the country's dependent position on the metropolis, in particular, British ownership of the Suez Canal and exploitation of the local population. Qutb also traveled to America and upon his return claimed that their lifestyle was unacceptable to the Ummah. Even in the years when he became a member of the Muslim Brotherhood organization and was one of its main ideologists, Qutb developed more ideas of nationalism. However, the political regime in Egypt fought a tough battle with opponents. It is for this reason that, already in prison, Sayyid Qutb comes to realization of the need to combat radical measures. Then the transformation of the ideas of nationalism into radical Islamism takes place, since it is aimed at combating power that pretends to be Muslim, but in fact serves the interests of others.
A similar thing happened in other regions - because of social and political injustice, people came to the conclusion that their actions lacked coverage and radicalism.
The European Commission interprets terrorism as a threat that does not recognize borders and can af-e fect states and people regardless of their geographical M location. Individuals and groups who believe that they are able to achieve their political goals through vio° lence are a challenge to the democratic values of Eu-g ropean societies and threaten the rights and freedoms
of citizens, especially by randomly targeting them. A terrorist act is a crime for which there is no justification and should be treated accordingly regardless of circumstances.
A similar idea can be seen in the joint directive of the European Parliament and the Commission. It states that terrorist acts constitute one of the most serious violations of the universal values of human dignity, freedom, equality and solidarity, as well as the exercise of human rights and fundamental freedoms, on which the Union is based. They also constitute one of the most serious attacks on democracy and the rule of law, principles that are common to member states. [5]
The French Republic, in turn, has a long history of the fight against terrorism, and therefore it was reflected in the private understanding of the phenomenon at the legislative level. In the French Penal Code, terrorism is defined as a series of acts, including premeditated murder, assault, theft, theft, theft, extortion, destruction of property, membership in an illegal armed group, cybercrimes, fake and much more that is carried out with the aim of serious violation of public order through intimidation or terror.
On the example of France, we see that the interpretation is general, devoid of specificity and, therefore, providing opportunities for all kinds of interpretations.
A similar situation is observed in the expert community. Many researchers disagree in a single formulation.
Among European experts, we begin by examining the interpretation of the Norwegian radical scholar Tore Biergo, who claims that terrorism is a set of methods of struggle that are more likely to be unde-tectable within the framework of an ideology or political movement and involves the deliberate use of violence against civilians in order to achieve psychological impact fear of others, and not of the immediate objects of violence.
Spanish researcher Fernando Rainares reveals three features that define terrorism for academic purposes. Firstly, it is an act of violence that causes widespread disproportionate emotional reactions, such as fear and anxiety, that can affect a person's attitude and behavior. Secondly, violence is systemic and rather unpredictable and, as a rule, is directed against symbolic goals. Thirdly, violence transmits messages and threats in order to interact and gain control over society [14].
The most fundamentally and consistently phenomenon was studied by Alex Schmidt, a scientist in the field of terrorism research. In 1988, together with his colleague Albert Jongman, he published the work Political Terrorism: A New Guide for Actors, Authors, Concepts, Databases, Theories, and Literature. In another work of 2004, "Terrorism is an Interpretation Problem," the researcher presents to our attention many interpretations of the phenomenon, at the same time analyzes the problem of the lack of a general formulation and focuses on the need to seek a common approach to understanding terrorism [2].
A similar guide for journalists was released by the UN - "A Guide for Journalists: Terrorism and the Me-
dia." It gives the meaning of terrorism in accordance with the 12th United Nations Convention against Terrorism, which proposes to use the word "terrorism" to mean any action that is aimed at causing death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants, when the purpose of such an act is to its nature or context is to intimidate a population, government or international organization [16].
In conclusion we can summarize that in order to understand modern terrorism and select approaches for relatively objective coverage of acts of violence, you should, first of all, know the history of this phenomenon. Secondly, one should listen to the opinion and delve into the work of specialists in the field of terrorism research. Thirdly, it is necessary to look for a "golden mean," because both the law and the scientific community are pushing for this.
Euronews in European Information Space
About 140 news channels of all types are available in the European Union, regardless of their location. Of these, 43% are national news television channels, which means their program is linked to one of the European territories and is aimed at the appropriate national audience. The remaining 57% of news television channels are international and, accordingly, their programs are aimed at international, and not specifically one of the European audiences.
Euronews was founded to cover international news from a European perspective. It was founded during a period of great political upheaval, accompanying the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of the Soviet Union.
The main advantages of the channel can be called the fact that it began broadcasting in the five official European languages - English, German, French, Italian and Spanish. Later Portuguese and Russian were added. In 2008, an Arabic branch appeared as it was decided to expand the non-European audience.
The main feature of the TV channel is the process of submitting information, in which the intermediary is not involved, that is, the news program is missing a presenter, and the video is accompanied by listening. This allows the audience to choose and change the language, but the key feature of this property is that the news item does not change regardless of the language change.
Another feature of Euronews is that in fact they have an editorial team, but there are no local correspondents in the broadcasting countries. The channel works with a group of editorial staff who translate news into national languages. They rely on information taken from print media. Difficulties arise when voicing the opinions of famous people, so the channel often refers to anonymous sources or to a collective image. Thus, in Euronews, sealed sources take the form of interviews with politicians, writers and other public figures.
Thanks to a large number of publishers, Euronews is one of the international networks and offers several international news channels aimed at transnational media markets or global language communities. Traditionally,
television channels adapt to the requirements of the audience, regardless of whether it is national or regional.
Euronews is 15% owned by foreign investors, and the rest of the company is owned by local European authorities and businesses. This television channel is also the first "global" news platform covering world news 24/7 in twelve languages and in a multi-cultural publication. The company intends to provide a unique European vision for world events, to promote pluralism of views, selecting material adapted to the needs of the audience.
National TV channels available on the market can be both local and foreign. On average, two of the seven available channels are national, broadcasting in the state language of the country. However, there are exceptions in markets where national television channels broadcast in a foreign language, such as in Turkey and Switzerland. Half of the existing 34 markets, television channels broadcast in official languages, while the audience has a choice of at least three. At the same time, for the rest of the market, national television channels are preferred, representing 68% of the television channels broadcasting in the official language. As a result, a balance is maintained, indicating relative diversity.
Accessibility to the information market is determined by the presence of national television channels broadcasting in the official language. Consequently, in European countries with a large number of national public broadcasters, the share of foreign television channels will be lower due to less demand. And vice versa, for countries with fewer national channels, the market will be more attractive to foreign ones, in particular, broadcasting in the national language. For example, in Poland, Netherlands, Bulgaria, Lithuania, Slovakia, Norway, the Czech Republic, Denmark and Albania, the minimum number of local television channels broadcasting in their native language.
The main section of the news program is politics, because it serves the realization of the primary task of the channel - the formation of a European position in covering world events. The editorial staff of the TV channel seeks to promote the idea of Europe in the continent's struggle for human rights, multiculturalism, multilingualism and tolerance. In the selection of news broadcast by the TV channel, the focus is primarily on Europe and Europeans. This applies both to the processes of political development within the Union and to regression on a single European path. In particular, we are talking about the conflict of national states with Brussels.
We can conclude that Euronews has great potential and occupies a competitive position in the European media market. This is a popular and authoritative medium, which fulfills its key task, formulating a European position regarding events in the world and, mainly, in Europe.
Coverage of Terrorist Acts at Euronews (20142019). Contet-Analysis
On January 7, 2015, an armed attack on the satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo occured. The act of violence was
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officially classified as Islamic extremism. Euronews did not pay enough attention to this case, focusing more on the words of witnesses and victims of the terrorist act: «"I fear that people coild give in to this terror," says Quentin, who knows personally some journalists at Charlie Hebdo. "That is why I heard about it very early, people called me to see if everything was ok. Then they kept calling through the day to give me their condolences"» [3].
Content analysis article:
Content analysis article:
Word Quantity Frequency%
That 8 1.71
About 5 1.28
Attack 6 1.28
Happen 5 1.07
Aware 4 0.85
On May 13, 2016, a terrorist act occurred in the city of Karachi, Pakistan. Euronews reported the following: «At least 43 people have been killed and another 20 injured when gunmen opened fire on a bus carrying Ismaili Shi'ite Muslims in Pakistan's southern city of Karachi» [9].
Content analysis article:
Word Quantity Frequency%
assault 2 1.65
Bus 2 1.65
opened fire 2 1.65/3.31
Ismaili 2 1.65
Karachi 2 1.65
On June 19, 2016, in Germany, a 17-year-old Afghan attacked people in a train. "Euronews" then wrote: «Four passengers on a train in southern Germany were wounded, three of them seriously when a 17-year-old Afghan refugee suddenly attacked them with an axe and a knife...German media sources have unconfirmed reports that the youth shouted Allah Ak-bar or "God is Great!"» [1].
Content analysis article:
Word Quantity Frequency%
Attack 6 2.52
Train 4 1.68
Germany 3 1.26
Aallah akbar 2 0.84
Passenger 3 1.26
On January 2, 2017, a terrorist act occurred in a nightclub in Istanbul. Thanks to the staff who got into social networks, Euronews recreated the picture of what is happening, describing what happened as follows: «Fleeing revelers says they heard the attacker approach, crying 'Allah Akbar' as his footsteps crushed the broken glass. Thirty-nine people, including at least 15 foreigners, were killed in the incident, for which ISIS has claimed responsibility. Sixty-nine people were injured and are in hospital, with four of them in a critical condition» [18].
Word Quantity Frequency%
Attacker 4 1.42
Nightclub 4 1.42
Allah akbar 3 1.06
Gunman 2 0.71
Kill 2 0.71
April 3, 2017th year there is an explosion in the St. Petersburg metro. Euronews publishes text reporting: «Around ten people have been killed and around 40 injured after an explosion tore through a train carriage in St. Petersburg's metro system, Russian authorities say» [15].
Content analysis article:
Word Quantity Frequency%
Explosion 4 1.79
Metro 4 1.79
Blast 3 1.34
Petersburg 2 0.89
Killed 2 0.89
On March 24, 2018, Euronews wrote about the murder in the small French town of Trebe: «Any community struck by a terror incident has to live with an aftershock but when that community is not a glittering capital city or world-famous landmark, incomprehension is high, and many know life will not just go on afterwards as before, unlike a battling city like London that can boast of its resilience» [17].
Content analysis article:
Word Quantity Frequency%
Victim 2 1.41
Kill 2 1.41
Village 2 1.41
Community 2 1.41
On March 17, 2019, shooting at a mosque in New Zealand took the lives of up to 50 people. Euronews then reported the following: «The death toll from the mosque shootings rose to 50 after investigators found another body at one of the mosques, said New Zealand's Police Commissioner said on Sunday» [12].
Content analysis article:
Word Quantity Frequency%
Attack 13 1.76
Gun 7 0.95
New Zealand 6 0.81/1.63
Shooting 6 0.81
Mosque 6 0.81
Christchurch 4 0.54
Gun laws 3 0.31
Conclusion
Based on the results of the content analysis, we can outline the general trend of terrorist acts' coverage on the Euronews television channel. In all cases the concretization of the place is observed, which sometimes comes to a detailed description. The type of attack is also indicated. Another equally important part of the news product is the number of victims, both dead and injured.
In this matter, illuminating the case of Breivik is indicative. Firstly, the classification of crime at first as a "terrorist act", and after a phased re-qualification as a "mass murder".
Secondly, it is the high personification of the crime. As a rule, it is advisable not to replicate the names of terrorists, since this glory is what they strive for in order to gain influence. In any case, even negative publicity can serve as a lever of pressure. Among other things, he may have admirers and even followers.
Third, Euronews cautiously approached the term "terrorist," ultimately excluding it from Breivik articles. In one study in the United States, it was rightly noted that in the news of terrorist attacks, as a rule, we can more often hear about terrorists from the Middle East or Southeast Asia, but not European ones. Usually they are called right-wing radicals or extremists, as happened in the case of the "Norwegian shooter."
In conclusion it should be noted that it is precisely the lack of understanding of the boundaries between the terrorist act and the killing of a person in a public place, as well as the reluctance to agree on a common wording for the fight against terror, that lead to political flaws affecting the field of journalism.
ISSUE OF TERRORISM IN THE EU-AUDIOVISUAL MEDIA BY THE EXAMPLE OF EURONEWS
Martynenko E.V., Navruzshoeva Kh.
RUDN University
This article analyzes the European media discourse in the context of coverage of terrorism on the example of one of the leading news channels. Media coverage of terrorism contains two main threats. The first is the «spiral of violence» that arises from the «effect of immunization.» The constant coverage of terrorism «tempers» society, raising the threshold for an acceptable level of violence in it, and terrorists have to take more brutal actions in order to attract attention. This is the "spiral of violence.» The second is the "infection effect". This danger lies in the fact that the activity of the media in itself contributes to the spread of terrorism, unwittingly providing this phenomenon with high media. The article discusses specific examples related to the first and second risk vectors, as well as the impact of information policy in the context of coverage of terrorism on European society. In preparing the study, the authors used the system-analytical method, the method of sociological analysis, the historical-analytical method and the method of content analysis.
Keywords: Media, EU, politics, public opinion, terrorism, danger.
References
1. Afghan youth attacks German train passengers with axe. URL: https://www.euronews.com/2016/07/19/man-stabs-passengers-on-train-near-german-city-of-wurzburg-several-critically (Date of access: 18.04.2020)
2. Alex Schmidt Terrorism: The Definitional Problem, Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law, vol, 36, issue 2, 2004.
3. Charlie Hebdo attacks: Paris shocked, but life goes on. URL: https://www.euronews.com/2015/01/08/charlie-hebdo-attacks-paris-shocked-but-life-goes-on (Date of access: 18.04.2020)
4. Charter of Fundamental Rights of European Union. URL: https:// eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/treaty/char_2012/oj (Date of access: 18.04.2020)
5. Directive (EU) 2017/541 Of The Europe Parliament and the Council of 15 March 2017 on combating terrorism and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA and amending Council Decision 2005/671/JHA. URL: https://eur-lex.europa. eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32017L0541 (Date of access: 18.04.2020)
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7. European Parliament resolution of 17 April 2018 on gender equality in the media sector in the EU (217/2210(INI)). URL: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-8-2018-0101_EN.html (Date of access: 18.04.2020)
8. European Parliament resolution of 3 May 2018 on media pluralism and media freedom in the European Union (2017/2209(INI)). URL: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-8-2018-0204_EN.html (Date of access: 18.04.2020)
9. Gunmen in Pakistan kill 43 in a bus attack. URL: https://www. euronews.com/2015/05/13/gunmen-in-pakistan-kill-43-in-bus-attack (Date of access: 18.04.2020)
10. Lasswell Harold Dwight. Propaganda Technique in the World War. - Peter Smith, 1927. - 328 p.
11. Martynenko E.V. (2019) Terrorism as a destructive factor of international relations. Historical evolution of the phenomenon. Teorii i problemy politicheskikh issledovanii [Theories and Problems of Political Studies], 8 (3A), pp. 153-162.
12. New Zealand shootings: death toll climbs to 50 after another body found at mosque. URL: https://www.euronews. com/2019/03/15/new-zealand-gunman-streamed-mosque-shooting-live-on-facebook (Date of access: 18.04.2020)
13. Parkhitko N.P., Pantaleva N.S. Juridicheskaja nauka. 2019. № 3. P. 47-50.
14. Prof. Fernando Reinares URL: https://web.archive.org/ web/20090528090821/http://www.7isf.ethz.ch/program/topic-speakers/fernando_reinares.cfm (Date of access: 18.04.2020)
15. Russian media report explosions at St. Petersburg metro station casualties. URL: https://www.euronews.com/2017/04/03/ russian-media-report-explosions-at-st-petersburg-metro-station-casualties (Date of access: 18.04.2020)
16. Security Council resolution 1566 (2005) on Threats to International Peace and Security caused by terrorist acts. URL: https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/blog/document/security-council-resolution-1566-2004-on-threats-to-international-peace-and-security-caused-by-terrorist-acts/ (Date of access: 18.04.2020)
17. Terror comes to small French town. URL: https://www.eurone-ws.com/2018/03/24/terror-comes-to-small-french-town (Date of access: 18.04.2020)
18. Turkey nightclub attack - what we know. URL: https://www.eu-ronews.com/2017/01/02/turkey-nightclub-attack-what-we-know (Date of access: 18.04.2020)
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