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17OPINIONS REGARDING MARRIAGE AND PARENTHOOD: FACTORS OF INTER-EUROPEAN
AND INTRA-RUSSIAN DIFFERENCES
Gurko T.
Institute of Sociology, Federal Center of Theoretical and Applied Sociology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia. Chief scientific researcher, Dr. Sci. (Sociol.)
Abstract
The purpose of the article is analysis of factors of the diversity of opinions regarding marriage and parenthood in European countries as well as in Russia based on European Social Survey-2018.
Dependent variables are opinions regarding the rights of homosexual people to live their own life, the rights of same-sex couples to adopt children, childlessness, cohabitation, fragile families, divorcing with children and regarding of mothers, who has a full-time job while she has children aged under 3 years old. It found that the problems of same-sex couples and conscious childlessness are the most topical among habitants of European countries.
The main independent variables hypothetically influencing these opinions in European countries: behavior of inhabitants (measured by statistic indicators: total fertility rate, birthrate outside marriage, cohabitations and divorces) and legislation. Opinions and behaviors in most European countries correspond in relation to childlessness, cohabitation and outside marriage births.
The links between legislation and opinions are ambiguous. These connections are established in relation to new social practices (same-sex unions, adoption of children by them), but not in relation to divorce, that is, the already established norm of behavior.
Such variables of intra-Russian differences as gender, the presence of children, age group, education and religiosity were analyzed. It is shown that the most differentiating factor of opinions about marriage and parenthood in Russia is the generation. The opinions of Russians are more liberal in younger age groups and more conservative in older ones. As for cohabitation, in Russia the difference between age groups is greater than the difference between European countries.
Keywords: inhabitants, opinions, same-sex couples, childlessness, cohabitation, fragile families; divorce, legislation, gender, children, age, education, religiosity.
1. Introduction
The diversity of family structures initially interested anthropologists [1, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19, 22]. Subsequently, within the framework of an institutional approach, sociologists began to study the main types of family organization in the West and East Europe, Russia, China, Israel, Japan, Africa, the Middle East during industrialization and postindustrial period [2, 5, 21, 23]. The transformation of the institutions of marriage and parenthood in recent decades in the context of rapid social, economic, cultural and technological innovations worldwide encourages studying the diversification of the family institution [9]. The situation in 84 low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) described as persistent diversity with development [16]. The spread of different family structures in high income countries was being analyzed on the base of statistical sources (Eurostat, OECD Family Database, Rosstat, US Census Bureau) in particular by author of this article [8].
The independent role of norms and values in changing family patterns, not just the impact of the level of economic development, emphasized by sociologists [for example 5: 369].
Main objectives of empirical analysis:
■ To identify which dependent variables (opinions) differ more between European countries based on the European Social Survey-2018.
1 European Social Survey, ESS, 2018 year, 9 wave). URL:
http://www.europeansocialsurvey.org/ (accessed 20.02.2021). In Russia, the project had been implemented by
■ To determine correlations between the behaviors of inhabitants according to statistics and opinions regarding marriage and parenthood in European countries and in Russia.
■ To identify correlations between the legislation with regard to same-sex marriage, adoption by same-sex couples, divorce without fault and opinions on these issues in European countries.
■ To determine which of the independent variables (gender, having children, age groups, education, religiosity) have a greater influence on opinions regarding marriage and parenthood in Russia.
2. Materials and Methods
In European Social Survey (ESS-2018)1 opinions regarding marriage and parenthood measured by five points scales. Data presented on figures 1-2 measured by scale: agree strongly (1) agree (2) neither agree nor disagree (3) disagree (4) disagree strongly (5), on figures 3-7 also by five-point scale: strongly disapprove (1) disapprove (2) neither approve nor disapprove (3) approve (4) strongly approve (5). Data on the figures 17 are the sum of the responses for the first two points.
The representative samples of all persons aged 15 and over (no upper age limit) of European countries consist 47086 respondents regardless of their nationality, citizenship2 or language, in Russian Federation -2416.
the Center for Comparative Social Research (CESSI). 2 I use the concept of "inhabitant" of the country as a synonym for "respondent".
Dependent variables are opinions regarding the rights of homosexual people to live their own life, the rights of same-sex couples to adopt children, childlessness, cohabitation, fragile families3, divorcing with children and regarding of mothers, who has a full-time job while she has children aged under 3 years old.
The main independent variables hypothetically influencing these opinions in European countries: behavior of inhabitants according to statistics (total fertility rate, indicators of birth outside marriage, cohabitations and divorces) and legislation (year of introducing of same-sex marriages or partnerships, adoption by samesex couples, year of introducing of no-fault divorce).
Independent variables as factors of intra-Russian differences of opinions are gender: men (n=987) and women (n=1429); having children: have (n=1693) and have not (n=716); age group: 15-24 years old (n=336), 25-34 (n=473), 35-54 (n=769), 55-64 (n=426), 65-91 (n=412); level of education: secondary general (n=633), secondary special (n=1038), higher (bachelor's, master's degree or specialist) (n=745) and religiosity: believers (n=1296), unbeliever (n=1072).
The data sets for European countries and Russia presented separately. The Kramer coefficient (V) calculated for cross-country differences with the exception of the Russian sample regardless of the gender of the respondents. The Kramer coefficient for intra-Russian differences given separately.
3. Results
3.1 Factors of inter-European differences
3.1.1 Opinions regarding the rights of homosexual people
The minority of respondents, who agree with the statement: "Gay men and lesbians should be free to live their own life as they wish", are inhabitants of Russia (17%), Lithuania (26%), Hungary (34%), Bulgaria (35%), Serbia (35%), Macedonia (36%), Slovakia (37%). The majority are inhabitants of the Netherlands (94%), Norway (94%), Sweden (93%), Ireland (90%), Belgium, Spain, France, UK (89%), Germany (88%), Switzerland (86%), Portugal (84%) and Finland (83%). Kramer coefficient V=0.48 here and below has been given at the significance level p < 0.05. Fig.1.
■ Men ■ Women
Figure 1. Men and women have been agreed with the statement: "Gay men and lesbians should be free to live
their own life as they wish ", %o
Hypothesis 1. Opinions regarding the rights of homosexual people depends on legalization of samesex marriages or partnerships in countries. This hypothesis confirmed.
In those countries in which same-sex marriages or partnerships legalized, i.e. in the Netherlands (2001), Belgium (2003), Spain (2005), Switzerland (2007),
Sweden and Norway (2009), Portugal (2010), France (2013), UK (2014), Ireland (2015), Finland (2017) and Germany (2017)11, the majority of inhabitants according to ESS-2018 agree with the rights of gay men and lesbians.
3 Fragile family is biological parents who live together with their children (child), but are not legally married.
4 Countries Where Gay Marriage Is Legal 2021. World Population Review. URL:
https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/countries-where-gay-marriage-is-legal (accessed 10.05.2021)
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Figure 2. Men and women have been agreed with the statement: «Gay male and lesbian couples should have the
same rights to adopt children as straight couples», %
The minority of respondents, who agree with the statement: «Gay male and lesbian couples should have the same rights to adopt children as straight couples», are inhabitants of Lithuania (6%), Russia (8%), Serbia (11%), Macedonia (11%), Bulgaria (11%), Slovakia (12%), Poland (13%) and Cyprus (15%). The majority are inhabitants of the Netherlands (80%), Spain (79%), Sweden (75%), Norway (74%), Belgium (69%), Germany (67%), Ireland (66%), UK (65%), France (60%), Switzerland (54%) and Portugal (53%). V=0.51. Fig.2.
Hypothesis 2. Opinions regarding the rights of same-sex couples to adopt of child depends on such legalization in countries. This hypothesis confirmed.
In those countries in which the adoption of child by same-sex couples, i.e. in the Netherlands (2001), Sweden (2003), Spain (2005), UK (2005), Belgium (2006), Norway (2009), France (2013), Ireland (2015), Portugal (2016), Germany (2017), Switzerland (2018, only child of partner)0, the majority of inhabitants
according to ESS-2018 agree with the rights of samesex couples to adopt children (fig.2).
3.1.2. Opinions regarding marriage and parenthood
In European Social Survey, some questions (fig.3-7) asked separately for assessing the behavior of men and women. In this article on figures 3-7, the differences by country presented and further described regardless of the behavior of men or women. The gender analysis of these variables according to the ESS-2006 made in a special article [18].
The majority of respondents who disapprove "if person chooses never to have children" are the inhabitants of Russia (65%), Bulgaria (64%), Serbia (64%), Latvia (59%), Estonia (53%), Slovakia (51%), and Lithuania (50%). The minority of such respondents are inhabitants of Norway (4%), Sweden (5%), UK (5%), Ireland (8%) and Netherlands (8%). V=0.42. Fig.3.
5 LGBT adoption. Wikipedia. URL: https://en.wikipe-dia.org/wiki/LGBT_adoption#Europe (accessed 10.05.2021)
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Figure 3. Men and women disapprove "if person chooses never to have children ", %
Hypothesis 3 (a). The share of inhabitants in the countries who disapprove of childlessness depends on the total fertility rate in the countries. This hypothesis confirmed in a number of countries.
In countries where the total fertility rate (TFR) is relatively high in 2018 year as in Sweden (1.8), Ireland (1.8), UK (1.7), in Netherlands (1.6), Norway (1.6)0 only a few people according to ESS-2018 disapprove of childlessness (4-8%).
In Cyprus, where the low birth rate (1.3), Slovakia, Hungary (1.5) is a significant proportion of those who disapprove of childlessness (38-51%).
Hypothesis 3 (b). The share of inhabitants who disapprove of childlessness depends on the share of
childless women at age 40-44 in the countries. This hypothesis confirmed in a number of countries.
In countries where there are many of childless women at age 40-44 in 2010 or latest available year according to the OECD7, in Spain (22%), Finland, Great Britain (20%), Ireland (19%), Sweden (13%) the least inhabitants (5-12%) according to ESS-2018 disapprove of childlessness people.
In countries where there is a few of childless women at age 40-44 according to the OECD, that is, in Slovak Republic (10%), Latvia (9%), Lithuania (8%), many inhabitants disapprove of childlessness people (50-59%).
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Figure 4. Men and women disapprove of person who lives with a partner without being married, %
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QTotal fertility rate. 2018 / Eurostat. URL: https: //ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tps00199/default/t able?lang=en (accessed 10.06.2021)
7SF2.5. Childlessness. 21.12.2018 // OECD Family Database. URL: http://www.oecd.org/els/family/database.htm (accessed 15.06.2021)
The majority of respondents who disapprove of person who lives with a partner without being married are inhabitants of Slovakia (39%), Russia (38%), Lithuania (37%), Bulgaria (24%), and Cyprus (20%). The minority of respondents are inhabitants of Norway (3%), Sweden (3%), Finland (5%), the Netherlands (6%), France, Spain (7%), Austria, Portugal Slovenia (8%) and Belgium, UK (9%). V=0.27. Fig.4.
Hypothesis 4 (a). The share of inhabitants who disapprove of cohabitation depends on the prevalence
of cohabitation in countries. This hypothesis confirmed in a number of countries.
In countries where level of cohabitation is high according to the OECD-2011 in age group 20-34 years oldfl, that is, in Sweden (29%), France (28%), the Netherlands (25%), Norway (23%), United Kingdom (22%) the least (3-9%) inhabitants according to ESS-2018 disapprove of people who live together without getting married. In Slovakia (4%) and Lithuania (9%), where level of cohabitation is very low, 39% of inhabitants disapprove such behavior.
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Men and women disapprove if person has a child with a partner she/he lives with but is not married to, %
The majority of respondents who disapprove "if person has a child with a partner she/he lives with but is not married to" are inhabitants of Russia (41%), Slovakia (39%), Lithuania (37%), Macedonia (29%), Serbia (26%) and Cyprus (25%). The minority of respondents are inhabitants of Norway (3%), Sweden (5%), Finland, France, Portugal (7%) and Slovenia (8%). V=0.24. Fig.5.
Hypothesis 5 (a). The share of inhabitants who disapprove fragile families depends on birth rates
outside marriage in countries. This hypothesis confirmed in a number of countries.
In countries with high birth rates outside marriage, according to Eurostat data in 2018, in France (60%), Slovenia (58%), Portugal (56%) and Sweden (55%)9, few respondents (5-8%) according to ESS-2018 disapprove people who has a child with a partner she/he lives with but is not married.
PISF3.3. Cohabitation rate and prevalence of other forms of partnership. 27.11.2016 // OECD Family Database. URL: http://www.oecd.org/els/family/database.htm (accessed 15.06.2021)
9Share of live births outside marriage. 2018. // Eurostat. URL: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tps00018/def ault/table?lang=en (accessed 10.05.2021)
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Figure 6. Men and women disapprove of person who gets divorced while she/he has children aged under 12
years old, %
The majority of respondents who disapprove of "person who gets divorced while she/he has children aged under 12 years old" are inhabitants of Latvia (47%), Russia, Serbia, Slovakia (43%), Estonia (35%), Poland (34%), Hungary and Italy (32%), Bulgaria, Croatia and Cyprus (31%), Slovenia (28%). The minority of respondents are inhabitants of Netherlands (0%), Sweden (13%), Norway (15%), United Kingdom (16%), Finland (18%), France (20%), Spain (21%), Czech Republic (23%) and Germany (26%). V=0.22. Fig.6.
Hypothesis 6 (a). The share of inhabitants who disapprove of divorcing people depends on index of divorce in countries. This hypothesis do not confirmed.
The percentage of inhabitants who disapprove of divorcing people who have children do not depends on the divorce rate in a number of countries. Thus, in countries with a high divorce rate in 2018 - in Russia (4.0) [The Demographic P. 50 ], Latvia (3.1), as well as in countries where the divorce rate is relatively low - Serbia (1.4), Croatia, Italy, Bulgaria (1.5)10, the share of
disapproving divorcing people who have children is approximately equally high (31-43%).
Hypothesis 6 (b). The share of inhabitants, who disapprove of divorcing people with children, depends on the time of the enactment of legislation of "no fault" divorce in countries. This hypothesis do not confirmed.
In those countries where earlier than in others were allowed "no fault" divorce more than a third of inhabitants disapproved of divorcing people: Latvia (1969-47%), Russia (1917-41%), Lithuania (196935%), Estonia (1969-35%), Poland (1965-34%), Italy (1970-32%), Hungary (1974-32%), Croatia (197831%), Slovenia (1978-28%), Montenegro (1978-27%), Germany (1976-26%), Austria (1978-23%). In those countries where "no fault" divorce has not yet been or later legalized - also about a third of inhabitants disapproved of divorcing people: Slovakia (no law yet -43%), Bulgaria (2009 - 31%), Portugal (2008 - 27%), Czech Republic (2012 - 23%).
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Figure 7. Men and women disapprove of women who has a full-time job while she/he has children aged under 3
years old, %
10 Crude marriage rate and crude divorce rate. 2018. // https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tps00206/def
Eurostat. URL: ault/table?lang=en (accessed 10.05.2021)
The majority of respondents who disapprove of mothers, who has a full-time job while she has children aged under 3 years old, are inhabitants of Serbia (36%), Latvia (34%), Slovakia (29%), Macedonia (29%) and Russia (28%). The minority of respondents who disapprove of such women are inhabitants of Norway (4%), Finland, Cyprus (6%), Ireland (8%) and Sweden (10%). V=0.22. Fig.7.
The majority of respondents who disapprove of mothers, who has a full-time job while she has children aged under 3 years old, are inhabitants of countries that had a socialist economy in the past. During the period of industrialization in the 1980s, many more women worked outside the home in the conditions of the socialist economy in countries such as Russia and in a number of countries that later joined the European Union (the Baltic States, the former Yugoslavia, etc.), compared to women in European market economies. The mothers had a double working day; they were overworked. This is probably why more inhabitants of these countries in modern conditions do not approve of the work of women with young children outside home.
3.2 Factors of intra-Russian differences
In Russia, both men and women are equally agree with the statement: "Gay men and lesbians should be free to live their own life as they wish" (fig. 1). Differences by age groups (V=0.16) and having children (V=0.15) are small. Very small differences among people with different level of education and religiosity.
Both men and women are equally agree with the statement: «Gay male and lesbian couples should have the same rights to adopt children as straight couples» (fig. 2). Differences by age groups is V=0.21, agree majority of respondents of the younger age group of 15-24 years old. Differences by having children are small (V=0.15). Very small differences among people with different level of education and religiosity.
Both men and women are equally disapprove childlessness (fig. 3). More people having children disapprove childlessness in comparison with people without children (V=0.20). The proportion of those who disapprove of childlessness increases with age (V=0.22). For example, in the age group 15-24 years old 53% of respondents disapprove childlessness and in age group 65-91 years old - 79%. Very small differences among people with different level of education and religiosity.
More Russian women than men disapprove cohabitation (fig. 4). The proportion of those who disapprove of cohabitation increases with age (V=0.29). For example, in the age group 15-24 years old 25% of respondents disapprove cohabitation and in the age group 6591 years old - 63%. Differences among believers/ non-believers (V=0.16) and by having children are small (V=0.13). Very small differences among people with different level of education.
Both men and women are equally disapprove fragile families (fig. 5). The proportion of those who disapprove of fragile families increases with age (V=0.19). For example, in the age group 15-24 years old 36% of respondents disapprove fragile families and in the age group 65-91 years old - 59%. Small differences among
people with different level of education, religiosity and having/not having children.
Both Russian men and women equally disapprove of divorcees (fig. 6). The share of those who disapprove of divorce increase with age (V=0.20). For example, in the age group 15-24 years old 39% of respondents disapprove divorce and in 65-91 years old - 63%. Very small differences among people with different level of education, religiosity and having/not having children.
Both men and women equally disapprove of mothers who work full-time if they have children under 3 years of age (fig. 7). Very small differences among people of different age, level of education, religiosity and having/not having children.
4. Discussion
Diversification of opinions. One of the tasks was to determine which dependent variables (opinions) differ more between European countries based on the European Social Survey-2018. It was shown that the greater differences of opinions among countries regarding the rights of same-sex couples to adopt children (V=0.51), the rights of gay men and lesbians (V=0.48) and regarding of childlessness (V=0.42). Small differences were identified regarding of cohabitation (V=0.27), fragile families (V=0.24), divorce (V=0.22) and regarding women who has a fulltime job while she has children aged under 3 years old (V=0.22). Thus, the problems of same-sex couples and conscious childlessness are the most topical among habitants of European countries.
Opinions and behaviors. One of the tasks was to determine correlations between the behaviors of inhabitants according to statistics and opinions regarding marriage and parenthood in European countries and in Russia.
There are practically no statistics on the share of same-sex marriages among same-sex households in the European countries, share of same-sex marriages among all marriages, same-sex cohabitations among all cohabiting couples without children and with children. Such data for the United States publishing by Census Bureau of USA based on American Community Survey (ACS). For example, in 2019 year, about 58% of couples in the nation's 980,000 same-sex households were married and about 42% were unmarried partners11.
In countries where the total fertility rate (TFR) is relatively high according to Eurostat in 2018, only a few people disapprove of childlessness. In countries, where the low birth rate, is a significant proportion of those who disapprove of childlessness. In countries where there are many of childless women at age 40-44, the least inhabitants disapprove of childlessness people. In countries where there is a few of childless women, many inhabitants disapprove of childlessness.
In countries where level of cohabitation is high according to OECD, the least inhabitants disapprove of people who live together without getting married. In a number of countries where there are few cohabitations, many inhabitants do not approve of them.
11 Same-sex-couple-households. URL: www.census.gov (accessed 10.05.2021)
In countries with high rates births outside marriage, according to Eurostat data in 2018, few respondents disapprove people who has a child with a partner she/he lives with but is not married.
The percentage of inhabitants who disapprove of divorcing people with children do not depends on the divorce rate in a number of countries according to Eurostat data in 2018. In many countries with a high divorce rate as well as in countries where the divorce rate is relatively low the share of disapproving divorcing people with children is approximately equally high.
That is, opinions and behaviors in most European countries correspond in relation to childlessness, cohabitation and outside marriage births.
On the example of Russia, we can see that attitudes and opinions in some spheres are more conservative than behavior. For example, Russian Federation has the highest divorce rate in the world both according to the data OECD12 and Eurostat13. Nevertheless, the majority of Russians condemn divorcees with children according to ESS-2018. In RF is a relatively high rate of outside marriage births - 21% in 2018 year. While about half of outside marriage births registered by both biological parents (51%)14. At the same time, the majority of respondents who disapprove "if person has a child with a partner she/he lives with but is not married to" are inhabitants of Russia (41%).
In other areas, such as cohabitation and work of mothers outside the home, on the contrary, behavior of Russian are more conservative than opinions. In RF are few cohabitations in comparison with developed countries (about 10% of couples, who have been living together for more than six months). At the same time, only 38% of Russians disapprove cohabitations.
The employment rate of women with children 0-2 years old in 2018 was 49% in the Russian Federation15. At the same time, only 28% of Russians disapprove mothers, who has a full-time job while she has children aged under 3 years old.
Opinions and legislation. Correlations between the legislation with regard to same-sex marriage, adoption by same-sex couples, divorce without fault and opinions on these issues in European countries were identify. More inhabitants support rights of samesex couples in those European countries in which samesex marriage (partnership) and adoption of child legalized. At the same time the share of inhabitants in European countries, who disapprove of divorcing people with children, do not depends on the time of the enactment of legislation of "no fault" divorce in this countries.
Factors of intra-Russian variation of opinions. Within Russia according to the ESS-2018, the most
12 SF3.1: Marriage and divorce rates. 30.06.2019. OECD Family Database [online]. URL: http://www.oecd.org/els/family/database.htm Accessed 20.06.2021.
13 Crude marriage rate and crude divorce rate. 2018 // Euro-
stat. URL: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=ta-ble&init= 1 &language=en&pcode=tps00206&plugin= 1 Ac-
cessed 20.06.2021.
differentiating factor is age group (generation). More liberals are among the younger age groups. Independent variables such as gender, having children, education and religion weakly related with analyzed opinions.
Limitations. The opinions of bachelors differ significantly, most likely due to their age. However, there are few of them in the study sample, since the bachelor's degree introduced in Russia only in 2007 in accordance with the Bologna Declaration. It is precisely because of the small number of bachelors (4 years of study) that they were combined into one group with specialists (5-6 years of study), the level that students received during the entire Soviet period.
Of course, many revealed correlations are bidirectional. For example, in this analysis, the legislation and the behavior of inhabitants considered as independent variables, and opinions as dependent. It is obvious that the opinions of inhabitants themselves influence legislation and behavior, something that, in particular, W. Good wrote about.
5. Conclusions
Dynamic of opinions. Last decade some publications devoted to comparative analysis of family and gender norms and their dynamics [e.g. 4, 17, 18]. In the article the dynamic of opinions regarding marriage and parenthood can be seen in the example of opinions of different age groups (generations) in Russia. According to the data obtained, it can be argued the tendency of liberalization of opinions in Russia regarding cohabitation (age differences, V=0.29), childlessness (V=0.22), the rights of same-sex couples to adopt children (V=0.21), divorce (V=0.20) and fragile families (V=0.19). The opinions of Russians are more liberal in the younger age groups and more conservative in the older ones. That is, one can see the dynamics of the liberalization of opinions.
Specificity of Russia. It is necessary to take into account that Russian families during the period of industrialization formed and functioned in different socio-economic conditions than in developed countries. In market economies, men worked outside the home and women worked in the family or partially outside the home during the family life cycle or during the working week. In countries with socialist economies, in particular in Russia, women worked outside the home almost on an equal basis with men throughout the 20th century [6: 13]. Therefore, marriage and parental norms of Russians are hypothetically significantly different from norms of inhabitants of European countries.
The Orthodox religion and Islam prevail in Russia. This is a possible reason that in comparison with the inhabitants of the countries, that took part in the ESS-2018 study, the opinions of Russians are more conservative on relation to the rights of gay men and
14 The Demographic Yearbook of Russia. 2019: Statistical Handbook/Rosstat. M., 2019. Appendix to the collection (information in the context of the subjects of the Russian Federation).
15 Family, motherhood and childhood. Rosstat. URL: https://rosstat.gov.ru/folder/13807 Accessed 20.06.2021.
lesbians, the rights of same-sex couples to adopt children (with the exception of Lithuania), conscious childlessness, fragile families, cohabitation (with the exception of Slovakia), divorcees with children (with the exception of Latvia) and on relation to mothers, who has a full-time job while she has children aged under 3 years old (with the exception of Serbia, Latvia, Slovakia, Macedonia).
Opinions differ more within countries than between different countries. What American scientists agree on and what the analysis of Russian research data confirms is the discrepancy between the models of organizing private life, including marital behavior among various social groups, primarily among those with and without higher education [3, 7; 11].
Hypothetically, mating behavior differs even more in different social groups in one country than among different countries. In that context, one of the tasks was to identify which opinions regarding marriage and parenthood differ more in Russia and in which social groups than among European countries. Only in relation to cohabitations in Russia the difference between age groups (generation) are greater (V=0.29) than the difference among European countries (V=0.27). This empirical fact indicates that sometimes opinions may differ more within countries than between different countries.
Acknowledgment: to James White from University of British Columbia who kindly agreed to comment of the first draft of this article.
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