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DC (УДК) 81’25 LBC (ББК) 81.0
Т.А. Волкова
СТРАТЕГИЯ ПЕРЕВОДА КАК УНИВЕРСАЛЬНАЯ КАТЕГОРИЯ ПЕРЕВОДОВЕДЕНИЯ: К ПОСТАНОВКЕ ВОПРОСА
В статье предпринимается попытка рассмотреть стратегию перевода как универсальную категорию переводоведения. Описаны концепции, связанные с понятием «стратегия перевода», основные термины и определения, подходы к типологизации стратегий перевода. Предлагается краткий обзор операций, осуществляемых в процессе перевода, отдельно рассматриваются вопросы выбора и применения стратегий перевода. Описана дискурсивно-коммуникативная модель перевода, формирующая стратегию перевода.
Ключевые слова: стратегия перевода; метод перевода; модель перевода; дискурсивнокоммуникативная модель перевода; тактика перевода; переводческая операция; универсальная категория
T.A. Volkova
ON TRANSLATION STRATEGY AS A UNIVERSAL CATEGORY IN TRANSLATION STUDIES
In the paper an attempt is made to approach translation strategy as a universal category in translation studies. Related terms, concepts, key definitions and typologies are outlined, followed by a brief review of operations involved in the process of translation with a specific focus on translation strategies selection and application. The paper also describes the discourse and communication translation model as a tool for working out a translation strategy.
Key words: translation strategy; translation method; translation model; discourse and communication translation model; translation tactic; translation operation; universal category
1. Translation Process Analysis*: Introductory Remarks. Selecting linguistic means, methods, strategies, and techniques during the process of translation is one of the key issues of translation theory. Meeting the challenge brings up a number of issues caused by different approaches to translation strategies research, terminological variety and variety of translation strategies typologies, as well as difficulties related to cognitive translation processes research. Science of translation provides a range of notions defining the translator’s actions and regular patterns of translator’s decision-making: translation method, translation procedures, translation techniques, translation tactics, and translation operations, to name a few.
* Публикация осуществляется при финансовой поддержке РГНФ, грант 12-34-01206 а2 (целевой конкурс под-держки молодых ученых 2012 года, проект «Моделирование процесса перевода: интеграция подходов в совре-менной лингвистике»).
Financial support for this research has been provided by the Russian Foundation for Humanities (12-34-01206 а2, Translation Modelling: Integrating Approaches in Modern Linguistics).
In this paper an attempt will be made to approach translation strategy as a universal category in translation studies. In broader terms this would require the following steps: (i) outline the scope of the term «translation strategy»; (ii) analyze concepts related to translation strategy (e.g. translation model and pre-translation analysis), as well as some universal concepts and categories in translation studies (e.g. translation as a secondary activity, translatability, adequacy, and equivalence), and set the parameters to recognize translation strategy as a universal category in translation studies; (iii) study and organize the main approaches to working out a translation strategy (discourse and communication, cognitive and textocentric approaches, linguistic per-sonology, and integrated interdisciplinary paradigms); and (iv) study the principles of working out a translation strategy in translation and interpreting and specify the universal features of a translation strategy. I shall at this point look at various terms and concepts related to translation
strategy, describe some principles of working out a translation strategy, and focus on the discourse and communication translation model.
Translation process comprises at least two stages: understanding the source text and selecting a translation variant. Translation theory tries to explore the transition from the source text to the target text and find out what regular patterns form the basis for translator’s actions* [Komissarov, 1990]. Translation process is viewed in the framework of human cognitive activity in terms of cognitive translatology based on the concept of translation activity as an interaction of individual cognitive and linguistic structures (of a translator) in the broadest context of individual psychosemiotic characterology [Fesenko, 2002, p. 133]. Translation process is marked by conceptual, sociocultural, linguistic, textual, and communicative constants [Ibid. P. 129]. Comparing traditional (structural) and cognitive and activity-oriented (personally oriented) trends in translation studies, authors point out that a partial research object (translation units) is replaced by an integral research object (translation strategy) [Alekseeva, 2010, p. 50].
As T.A. Fesenko puts it, a translator is assigned to interpret a source text semantic code, and it is not the verbal forms, but the concepts behind them that are translated [Fesenko, 2002, p. 133]. A translator interprets the conceptual program of the source text (ST) and authors (co-authors) the conceptual program of the target text (TT) [Ibid. P. 125]. The projected ST is initially processed in the «uncontrolled workspace» with the help of schemata and frames serving as the long-term memory structural framework [Ibid. P. 138]. At the initial stage of the text perception a general pattern is formed, encompassing the widest range of translator’s cognitive resources [Ibid. P. 152]. Data received during initial processing of the ST allow for the development of a macrostrategy, defining the translation framework and further mental processes that are then carried out in the «controlled workspace» [Ibid. P. 138].
A.G. Minchenkov suggests that understanding the ST and producing the TT are multistep processes operating in shuttle mode [Minchenkov, 2008, p. 9]. Producing the TT is parallel to un-
* Where there were no official translations of the Russian quotations available in English, these have been translated by the author.
derstanding the ST. In the process of ST understanding the text units activate the conventional concepts (notions) in a translator’s consciousness that interact with background and contextual knowledge available to a translator. This interaction results in the actualization of subjective concepts shaping senses in a translator’s consciousness. In a number of cases sense is shaped almost spontaneously, but it also often requires quite a long and complex cognitive search performed by a translator [Ibid]. Knowledge of meanings of the ST units and knowledge of the world determine the invariability of ST understanding by different translators. Differences in individual background knowledge and personal perception stipulate the variability of the ST understanding [Ibid]. A translator employs two kinds of search: a cognitive search for sense and a heuristic search for means of verbalization in the TL [Ibid. P. 41].
A translator’s knowledge base is represented as a cognitive memory model based on the perception of reality through comparing frames available in the memory. Each frame is linked to information received from reality [Remkhe, 2011, p. 329]. According to I.N. Remkhe, at the stage of understanding a translator perceives and comprehends the source text, searching for source text knowledge frames corresponding to those of the translator. Target text development can also be anticipated through dynamic frames explication. At the stage of translation dynamic frames (situational and classifying frames) are mentally created basing on the ST and correlating with equivalent frame structures in the target language (TL). Prototypical frame structures determine prototypical correspondences; the issue of missing correspondences is tackled, and a necessary translation strategy is selected. At the final stage a translator produces the TT with regard to its syntagmatic and syntactic features [Ibid]. Gradual selection of most common and recognizable text segments requires the application of a prototypical strategy. For particular less recognizable text segments involving a certain difficulty in translation an adaptive strategy is employed [Remkhe, 2007, p. 7]. The gap caused by something unknown or unclear to a translator can be closed «internally» by using additional cognitive mechanisms, contextual analysis, and associative search, or «externally» by turning to external informational resources [Ibid. P. 20].
Describing a text as a hierarchy of frames allows a translator to see the information distribution in the ST and prioritize accordingly [Fedyuchenko, 2006, p. 166]. Using frames in pre-translation analysis, a translator can predict lexical compatibility of certain text components and grammatical form of lexical units, see how various text components are related in terms of their roles (semantics), and precisely determine translation dominants [Ibid. P. 167].
An intersection of linguistic personology and translation process modelling is marked by a ludic translation model (theory) put forward by E.Yu. Kunitsyna [Kunitsyna, 2010]. «Liter-ary translation is a game» [Ibid. P. 67], and the process of overcoming differences between languages and cultures is marked by a cognitive dissonance. A translator’s cognitive dissonance is based on doubt, an intentional state typical for a translator that does not mean the translator is not sure (should not or cannot be sure) whether the translation is equal to the ST. Being sure that a different translation is possible, the translator takes risks and suggests a translation, even though constant improvements might be made to the translation later on [Ibid. P. 71].
2. Translation as a Strategic Activity. Given the notion of relative translatability, selecting a translation method, using a corresponding translation strategy, and defining translation units determine communication success to a great extent [Kazakova 2001, p. 11]. The translator selects a translation method to arrange information in the TT. At the first stage a complete or an abridged translation is selected. Abridged translation results in synopses, notes, summaries, abstracts, adaptations, and digests. Complete translation is aimed at a detailed reproduction of the ST information components with the TL units. Literal translation, semantic translation, and communicative translation are the most common complete translation methods (strategies*) [Ibid. P. 11-13].
Semantic translation suggests rendering the contextual meaning of the ST components with the TL units to the largest extent possible. As T.A. Kazakova points out [Ibid. P. 14], the pro-
* It should be noted at this point that the terminology remains quite ambiguous with regard to the meaning and scope of the notions both in Russian and Western research paradigms. E.g., complete and abridged translation might be qualified as translation methods and then further broken down into translation strategies.
cess of semantic translation is a natural interaction of two strategies: a strategy focused on the accepted TL conventions (cf. domestication) and a strategy focused on retaining the SL (source language) form of expression (cf. foreignization).
A strategy focused on the accepted TL conventions is applied to common lexical and grammatical components of the ST (standard syntactic structures, punctuation, sentence length, typical metaphors, conjunctions, syntactic forms, morphological structures, commonly used terms and expressions related to general culture and popular science). A strategy focused on retaining the SL form of expression is appropriate when translating unconventional, original forms and stylistic devices, as well as unusual vocabulary. In these cases semantic translation is normally focused on the specific features of the source sign to retain, to the extent of literal translation, as many peculiarities as possible [Ibid. P. 15].
Semantic translation is usually applied to texts of high social and cultural status, including important historical documents, works of classic literature and unique epos, as well as legal documents, singular documents with the so-called authentic translation, technical manuals, and scientific publications. Attention to the smallest linguistic detail of the ST often outbalances the considerations of the TT readability [Ibid].
Communicative translation suggests transferring the source information in such a manner that the TT effect is adequate to that of the ST. Communicative translation, appropriate for most works of imaginative literature and journalism, and partly for texts relating to theoretical and popular science, determines (programs) the receiver’s pragmatics [Ibid. P. 15-16].
P. Newmark mentions the difference between translation methods and translation procedures: «while translation methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used for sentences and the smaller units of language» [Newmark, 1988, p. 81]. The following are the basic translation methods P. Newmark proposes: word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaptation, free translation, idiomatic translation, communicative translation [Ibid. P. 45]. A list of translation procedures includes transference, naturalization, cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, descriptive equivalent, componential analysis, synonymy,
through-translation, shifts or transpositions, modulation, recognized translation, translation label, compensation, componential analysis, reduction and expansion, paraphrase, couplets, and notes, additions, or glosses [Newmark, 1988, p. 45].
S. Viaggio points out that semantic translation and communicative translation are not different methods, but different choices at a specific stage of the translating process. «Until translatology develops any further, there is, that I know of, one and only one universally apt method of translating: identification of the translator’s purpose; understanding of the SL text; inferring of sense (including any relevant formal features); re-expression of sense as a TL text (with as adequate a re-creation of the relevant formal features as possible); collation of original and translation for semantic and stylistic adequacy» [Viaggio, 1992, p. 6-7].
Analyzing procedures, strategies and methods of translation, M. Ordudari [Ordudari, 2007] gives an overview of where several authors stand, referring to technical and organizational procedures, global and local strategies, product-related and process-related strategies, definitions of a translation strategy as a procedure, a series of competencies, a set of steps, processes, rules or principles.
T.A. Fesenko describes translation strategies as cognitive and intuitive «linkages». Not only does intuition provide the source data in the process of translation, but it also associates the ST situations with the real background (interpretation context), and defines the semantic framework for translation and individual semantic conclusion [Fesenko, 2002, p. 130]. L.P. Tarnaeva points out that many decisions made by a translator lie at the intersection of formal logical algorithms and intuitive heuristic search. Translator’s creativity is viewed as an intuitive reproduction and actualization of knowledge, as new knowledge production and management [Tarnaeva, 2011, p. 19]. Depending on the type of discourse either creative or logical and conceptual resources of language consciousness are used [Ibid. P. 67].
A combination of cognitive schemata of speech kinds included in translation as a receptive and productive speech activity, standard translation models encompassing knowledge that forms a theoretical basis for translation skills training, and adaptive translation models developed ac-
cording to an individual style shapes a cognitive translation scheme [Gusev, 2003]. The more developed the cognitive translation scheme (i.e., the more situational and operational scenarios of verbal and cognitive strategies it encodes), the more developed the strategy, and the more opportunities for a translator to plan the translation process [Ibid]. The extent of creative freedom of a translator depends on the source text genre, translation purpose, translation brief, translator’s values, and translator’s aesthetic standards [Fesenko, 2002, p. 126]. Translation is approached as a translator’s reflexive activity, a complex thinking activity, and a process completely dependent on a translator’s competence as a translating personality [Alekseeva, 2010].
V.N. Komissarov proposes three groups of general principles of translation process that the translation strategy covers: some basic postulates; selecting general guidelines that a translator will follow when making particular decisions; and defining the nature and sequence of actions in the process of translation [Komissarov, 2002, p. 336]. I.S. Alekseeva divides the translation process into the following stages: (i) pre-translation analysis, (ii) analytical variative search, and
(iii) analyzing the translation results [Alekseeva,
2001, p. 144].
V.N. Komissarov points out that the basic postulates of a translation strategy are determined to a large extent by the mediative role of a translator: translator’s activity only makes sense when it meets the expectations of the interlinguistic communication actors. The basis for a general translation strategy is a translator’s commitment to understand the ST as fully as possible and find its most accurate equivalent in the TL. The most important strategic principles of a translator include self-criticism and maximum effort applied to find the best translation variant possible [Komissarov,
2002, p. 336-337].
In his view, a translation strategy selection is determined by translation purpose, text type, characteristics of the presumed receiver [Ibid. P. 114], and translation setting [Ibid. P. 337]. Defining the nature and sequence of actions in the process of translation is an individual factor conditioned by a translator’s level of proficiency. Many elements of a translation strategy are variable and employed differently by different translators in different translation settings; some components
of a strategic approach are universal. The general rules include, in particular, the precedence of understanding over translation and the necessity to divide the ST into sections as determined by the linear character of understanding and speech production [Komissarov, 2002, p. 337].
C. Nord suggests taking a prospective view of translation [Nord, 2006]: translators choose their translation strategies according to the text purpose or function, and select instrumental or documentary translation [Ibid. P. 131]. Following the principles of functionality and loyalty, the translation purpose, defined by the translation brief, determines the choice of translation method and strategy, and the acceptability of translation purposes is limited by the translator’s responsibility with regard to their partners [Ibid. P. 142].
V.V. Sdobnikov defines translation strategy as «a general program of the translator’s activity worked out on the basis of the general approach to translation in a specific communicative situation (CST) of bilingual communication, determined by the particular parameters of the situation and the translation goal and, in its turn, determining the character of the translator’s professional behavior» [Sdobnikov 2011a, p. 172; 2011b, p. 1450]. A list of translation strategies used in different communicative situations of cross-cultural communication includes the strategy of communicatively equivalent translation, the strategy of tertiary translation, and the strategy of redirection [Sdobnikov, 2012, p. 862], and the levels of a translator’s decision-making encompass analyzing the communicative situation, determining the translation goal, choosing a translation strategy, choosing translation tactics, and choosing translation operations [Ibid. P. 861]. The author gives two more definitions, describing tactics of translation as «a systematized set of translation operations performed to implement a chosen translation strategy and to achieve the translation goal», and a translation operation as «any action of a translator within the process of creating a text in the TL» [Ibid. P. 862].
V.N. Komissarov gives the following list of a translation strategy elements: familiarizing oneself with the text as a whole before starting the translation, using a rough draft (word-for-word translation) or finalizing a translation, and the predominant use of pre-translation analysis or posttranslation editing [Komissarov, 2002, p. 337].
V.V. Sdobnikov breaks a translation strategy into the following stages: (i) situation awareness; (ii) formulating the translation goal (technically coinciding with situation awareness, the translation goal is one of the primary parameters of a CST recognized by the translator only as a result of a relevant analysis); (iii) forecasting (working out the assumptions of how the CST can change in future and assumptions of how the communication actors would react to the translation); and
(iv) planning (programming) [Sdobnikov 2011a, p. 167-170; 2011b, p. 1450].
Concepts of psycholinguistics describing the incremental structure of speech activity (a motive - a goal and the commitment to achieve the goal to satisfy the motive through speech activity - an internal program of an utterance - shaping the utterance during internal speech - verbalizing the utterance) are to a certain extent applicable to translation process [Komissarov, 2002, p. 157158]. The structure of translation process generally corresponds to the stages of speech activity; a translator’s «internal program» is the compressed content of the ST [Ibid. P. 158]. With regard to the role of intellectual and cognitive processes in translation mechanism it seems reasonable to suggest that conceptual components of a cognitive strategy can significantly add to the list of characteristic features of a translation strategy.
Defining a cognitive strategy as a regular pattern of choosing ways to tackle cognitive tasks to achieve certain goals, D.N. Pavlov outlines the following key components of a cognitive strategy: a definite goal; relation to mental processes; innateness; subject dependency; deliberate use; flexibility; conditions dependency and context dependency; temporal orientation (perspective and situational strategies); efficiency; and awareness / unawareness [Pavlov, 2006, p. 63]. My suggestion is that the features of a cognitive strategy underlie the characteristics of a translation strategy, with one significant reservation: whereas a cognitive strategy is innate, translation strategies, as related to one’s professional activity, are acquired.
Relation to mental processes, subject dependency, and awareness / unawareness that characterize a translation strategy give the translator an individual repertoire of strategies, the list of which remains open. Context dependency and temporal orientation (perspective and situational
strategies) determine the dynamic character of a translation strategy and confirm the necessity of a constant variative search in the process of translation (cf. a cognitive search for sense and a heuristic search for means of verbalization in the TL and an intuitive reproduction and actualization of knowledge).
Self-criticism and maximum effort applied to find the best translation variant possible streamline translation strategies application and enable a constant search for translator’s solutions. Interconnection and flexibility of professional techniques allow for the logical development and flexibility of a chosen translation strategy. Universality and variability of a translation strategy components, flexibility and efficiency of a strategy allow the translator to streamline familiar solutions with no limit on the number of new solutions learned or suggested by a translator.
A translator’s commitment to understand the ST as fully as possible and find its most accurate equivalent in the TL shapes a general strategy of a translator’s professional activity and enables further steps aimed at solving translation problems (cf. «superintention» [Shevchenko, 2005] that forms the basis for a motivational level of a linguistic personality of a translator).
Specifying the translation purpose with regard to a translation setting, text type, and characteristics of the presumed receiver loosely determines a range of necessary translator’s decisions. The deliberate use and acquired character of a translation strategy confirm the strategic nature of translation process linked to the translator’s level of proficiency, and give evidence of an unrestricted number of new decisions made by the translator.
3. Discourse and Communication Translation Model. Issues of translation strategies selection and application take us to the role of translation modelling in working out a translation strategy. Translation models in linguistic translation theory describe the translation process as a sequence of intellectual operations applied to language or speech units, i. e. as linguistic operations selected upon the linguistic features of the ST and the corresponding phenomena of the TL [Komissarov, 1990]. The tasks of a model lie in describing the sequence of actions that meet a given translation challenge under given conditions. Translation models reveal certain functional aspects of a linguistic mechanism of translation. Even though a translator can achieve the necessary result in some
way other than suggested by any of the known translation models, understanding the functions of these models may help a translator complete the challenging translation tasks [ibid]. Describing the translation process with the help of translation models includes two interrelated aspects: a general description of a model defining the possible scope of its application (explanatory power of a model), and types of translation operations (transformations) carried out in the framework of a model. A translation model can be either primarily extralinguistic or based on some structural and semantic features of language units [Ibid].
Any translation model is hypothetical since there is no direct evidence that a translator acts exactly as the model suggests. However, when the translation result predicted in the model coincides with that produced by the translator, this proves the explanatory power of the model [Komissarov, 2002, p. 36-37].
I shall now look at the discourse and communication translation model [Volkova, 2010] (fig. 1) that forms the basis for applying translation strategies by a combination of the following interrelated components: textual level, discursive level, and communicative level. Linguistic (lexical and semantic, syntactic, stylistic, and pragmatic) peculiarities of ST, its discursive characteristics (text authorship, addressness, and narrative), discourse nodal points, discourse constitutive features (goals, values, chronotopos, linguistic expression, topic and participants of discourse, and interdiscursivity), communicative functions, typical features and strategies define decisions made by a translator and build up translation microstrategies on the textual level and translation macrostrategies on discursive and communicative levels [Ibid].
Translation strategies typology therefore includes a general translation strategy (the translator’s commitment to understand the ST as fully as possible and find its most accurate equivalent in the TL; superintention); translation process stages (pre-translation analysis*, analytical variative search, and analyzing the translation results); translation macrostrategies (discursive and communicative levels); and translation microstrategies (textual level).
* Elements of the discourse and communication translation model are in line with the pre-translation analysis components put forward in [Alekseeva, 2001; Petrova; 2007].
Translation Microstrategies Translation Macrostrategies
Pre-translation
analysis
Analytical variative search
Analyzing translation results
-------7\---------
t \ f \
Text /
t
i
i
stylistic features / t
lexical features /
/
/
/
semantic feature« syntactic features COMMUNICATION \dir0n0t0P03
%4_ Discourse
V
\ goals
\ nodal points
\
\ values
pragmatic/features
typical features
discursive characteristics
functions communicative strategies
field o£ discourse
\
N
tenor of cfi^course \
mode of discourse \
4
interdiscursivity
Pre-translation
analysis
Analytical variative search
Analyzing translation results
Reality
Fig. 1. Discourse and Communication Translation Model
Analyzing linguistic features of a text and functions of communication allows us to determine information composition and density, text genre and function. A translator receives a translation brief from the client and/or determines it by analyzing lexical and semantic, pragmatic and other features of text, its discursive characteristics, discourse nodal points and constitutive features, typical features of communication, and communicative functions and strategies in order to get an idea of ST and TT purposes.
Translation process stages equally cover communicative, discursive, and textual levels. Typical features and functions of communication, communicative strategies reflected in the ST, and the ST linguistic and discursive peculiarities can be analyzed at any stage of the translation process. The sequence and nature of the translator’s strategic actions are shaped but not limited by the model. As far as the scope and sequence of translation microstrategies and macrostrategies, they can be applied liberally in accordance with the translation purpose, translation setting, text type, and characteristics of the presumed receiver. It should be noted that decisions made by a translator are divided into microstrategies and macrostrategies solely for research purposes, thus allowing the translator to analyze the source text in an integrated manner, specify the trans-
lation difficulties, and find possible solutions. General translation strategy equally covers communicative, discursive, and textual levels and determines both the translation process and the translation result. According to the definition of a translation strategy given in this paper, the strategies typology remains open.
4. Conclusions. A translation strategy can be defined as a non-terminal combination of professional, efficient, dynamic, successive, universal and individual techniques that are logically interrelated. These techniques are applied in translation activity in a bilingual situation to enhance ST understanding and find the ST most accurate equivalent in the TL through a flexible variative search with regard to a translation setting, text type, and characteristics of the presumed receiver. A translation strategy is systematic, related to individual mental processes, and marked by translator’s self-criticism.
The discourse and communication translation model is explanatory in character and gives a variety of parameters for working out a translation strategy. A translator analyzes the ST features at all levels to form a pool of translation difficulties and find the relevant translator’s solutions.
Further analysis of issues related to translation strategies selection and application should help overcome ambiguities in terminology. Follow-
ing the guidelines tentatively set out in this paper and expanding the scope of research, we should be able to compare translation and interpreting strategies and specify the universal features of a translation strategy. Areas for further translation strategy research also include functional, communicative, and cultural literacy of a translator, linguistic creativity, and studies of professional linguistic personality of a translator.
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