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6УДК 93
Абазова М. В., Бечелов З. Ш.
Abazova M. V., Bechelov Z. Sh.
О НЕКОТОРЫХ ОСОБЕННОСТЯХ ПОЛИТИЧЕСКОГО КУРСА
АЛЕКСАНДРА III
ON SOME FEATURES OF THE POLITICAL COURSE OF ALEXANDER THE 3rd
Александр III — второй сын императора Александра II и Марии Александровны.
К правлению Александра Александровича не готовили, поэтому он получил обычное для великих князей военное образование. Особых способностей он не проявлял, хотя любил военное дело, литературу и музыку. Наследником великий князь Александр Александрович стал после смерти своего старшего брата Николая 12 апреля 1865 года. Александру пришлось вернуться к наукам и уделить особое внимание истории, экономике, праву. В этот момент в окружении наследника появился К. П. Победоносцев, который читал ему курс права, а позже стал главным советником нового императора. Министры-либералы были вскоре изгнаны из правительства, усилился административный контроль за земствами; начались преследования либеральной прессы и отменяется автономия университетов. Особенно ощутимо было наступление реакции в гуманитарной сфере. Министерство народного просвещения открыто рекомендует не принимать в гимназии детей из социальных низов, а женское высшее образование практически ликвидируется.
В основе экономической политики Александра III лежала идея укрепления самодержавной власти с помощью развития национальной промышленности. Процесс капитализации российской экономики в 80-е гг. ХХ в. принял бурный характер. Росли инвестиции Франции, Бельгии, Германии в российскую экономику. Сложные процессы происходили в аграрной сфере. Крестьянство страдало от малоземелья, а правительство, тем не менее, упорно финансировало вывоз хлеба за границу, не считаясь с тем, что деревня жила крайне скудно.
Авторами проанализирован широкий круг иностранных источников по истории России периода царствования Александра III.
Alexander III the was the second son of the Emperor Alexander II and Maria Alexandrovna
Did not prepare for reigh Alexander Alexandro-vich's government therefore he got military education, usual for grand dukes. Special abilities he did not show though he loved military science, literature and music (the cornet — and — a percussion cap and a trombone blew the trumpet). The successor the grand duke Alexander Aleksandrovich became after the death of the elder brother Nicolay who died in Nice on April 24, on April 12 on old style of1865. Alexander had to return to sciences and to pay special attention to history, economy, and the right. At this moment in an environment of the successor there was K P. Pobedonostsev who gave to it a right course, and became the chief adviser to the new emperor later.
Contemporaries noted that at average mental capacities and education Alexander differed in common sense, an intuition and sharpness. The tsar was laconic; knew French, German and English languages, but in society tried to speak only Russian. In life it was simple, modest and unpretentious.
The tsar differed in an athletic build and was famous for the «basilisk look» inherited from the grandfather, the emperor Nicholas I: his look aroused fear very few people could look to Alexander in the face. Determination was combined in it with shyness; the emperor was afraid to go by a horse, hesitated of the big mass of the people. Alexander III cancelled the May parade loved by Petersburgers - when in the first serene day off of May all hundred thousand of capital army marched on the Field of Mars at the highest presence. Business was that the tsar did not take out a type of such mass of troops.
During the Russian-Turkish war, still being a successor of a throne, Alexander Aleksandrovich ordered Rushchuksky group (2 cases) and proved to be very adequately. The successor was one of initiators of armed struggle for freedom of Bulgaria. But, having seen with own eyes horrors of war, Crown Prince for the rest of life like to it hatred.
Ключевые слова: Россия, монархия, эконо- Key words: Russia, monarchy, economic trans-
мические преобразования, внутренняя политика, formations, domestic policy, foreign policy. внешняя политика.
Абазова Марьяна Вячеславовна -
кандидат экономических наук, старший преподаватель кафедры «Коммерция и право» ФГБОУ ВО «Кабардино-Балкарский государственный аграрный университет им. В.М. Кокова», г. Нальчик Тел.: 8 928 692 19 79 E-mail: shmv1978@yandex.ru
Бечелов Заур Шабасович -
кандидат исторических наук, доцент кафедры «История и философия» ФГБОУ ВО «Кабардино-Балкарский государственный аграрный университет им. В.М. Кокова», г. Нальчик Тел.: 8 928 080 03 10 E-mail: beck2006@mail.ru
Abazova Mariana Vyacheslavovna -
Candidate of Economic Sciences, Assistant Professor of the Department of Commerc and Law, FSBEI HE «Kabardino-Balkarian State Agrarian University named after V.M. Kokov», Nalchik Tel.: 8 928 692 19 79 E-mail: shmv1978@yandex.ru
Bechelov Zaur Shabasovich -
Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of History and Philosophy, FSBEI HE «Kabardino-Balkarian State Agrarian University named after V.M. Kokov», Nalchik
Tel.: 8 928 080 03 10 E-mail: beck2006@mail.ru
Economic blossoming, the world and stability - it in the history remembered Alexander III's government.
On November 1, 1894 the emperor Alexander III who got the nickname Peacekeeper as it was the only Russian monarch for all the 19th century which was not involved in one war for all the time of the board died.
Alexander's reign was differently estimated by both his contemporaries, and descendants. People of the left-wing and liberal views considered him the gloomy reactionary who set as an object eradication of any social progress [3, 45]. Slavophiles and conservatives, on the contrary, saw in it an ideal of the sovereign not inclined to sharp and radical reforms and the society caring first of all for the benefit.
At it there were no great fulfillments taking the breath away but at the same time there were no catastrophic failures also. We tried to find out what was the last Russian monarch at whom society lived without radical shocks.
Casual emperor. Alexander Aleksandrovich generally should not have become an emperor. He was Alexander II's son, the second for a seniority. His elder brother Nikolay Aleksandrovich was a successor of a throne. He got the education and an education necessary for the solution of essential national objectives. Alexander prepared for military service and got an educa-
tion with the emphasis on military science. The general Perovsky was young Alexander Alek-sandrovich's mentor.
Nicolay Aleksandrovich was a young man of huge talents. According to his mentor, he had every chance to become one of the best Russian governors, it was so clever and capable. Alexander significantly conceded to the brother in training. For example, it filled up a course on history and Russian (he wrote competently, but was not able to formulate a thought, as it was necessary for its status).
The destiny was cruel to Crown Prince. During the visit to Europe the young successor of a throne suddenly got sick and at the age of 21 year died of tubercular meningitis. 20-year-old Alexander automatically became the successor of a throne [1, 20]. He was distressed to such stroke of bad luck and its duality, the worst day - day of death of the brother whom he very much loved -at the same time was for it in the best afternoon as he became the successor of a throne: «Awful day of death of the brother and my one and only friend. This day will remain for me in the best afternoon of my life», - he wrote. In honor of the died brother he called the firstborn - future emperor Nicholas II.
At once after these events the best teachers that he met lacks in education were put to Alexander, and he took the course necessary for fu-
ture emperor. The mentor of young Crown Prince Konstantin Pobedonostsev in his board will become one of the most influential politicians of Russia, with his direct participation many issues will be resolved.
In not less sad circumstances, Alexander became an emperor. If he became a successor because of tragic death of the brother, then the emperor - after tragic death of the father killed by terrorists-narodovoltsami.
The state interests are higher than personal. Alexander married the bride of the died brother. The Danish princess Dagmara was betrothed with Nicolay Aleksandrovich, but they did not manage to get married because of a disease of the successor of a throne. Dagmara and Alexander looked after the seriously ill patient the brother his last days. At that time Alexander already had a ladylove - the maid of honor Meshcherskaya. But in new circumstances Alexander could not marry it any more, otherwise marriage would be morganatic and their children would not have the rights for a throne.
The emperor Alexander II insisted that the son took Dagmara who is already fallen in love to an imperial family in wives. The successor of a throne chose, to refuse a throne for the sake of love or to accept it, but to marry another [2, 40]. After the short period of throwing's, under the influence of the father, the successor of a throne subordinated to the state interests own, having had a talk with Meshcherska. In over a year after the death of the brother he made the proposal to his bride. Strangely enough, the marriage concluded in so unusual circumstances was surprisingly strong and happy. Almost all contemporaries note mutual attachment of spouses to each other.
Peacekeeper. With good reason it is possible to call Alexander the Peacekeeper, he the emperor, the first since Peter II, who was not taking part in wars and the only Russian emperor with so long term of peace board. Nevertheless personally Alexander happened to be involved in war - only then he was Crown Prince.
During the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 he ordered East group of the Danube army. This group assumed the main blow during autumn approach of Turks of 1877 and managed to constrain it.
Alexander distributed the things sent all from St. Petersburg to soldiers thanks to what he was popular in the group. In the war he began to let
grow a beard which he carried later constantly, having become the first bearded Russian emperor. Military experience exerted a great influence on the tsar: «I am glad that was at war and saw itself all horrors which are inevitably connected with war ... Any governor to whom God entrusted the people has to take all measures to avoid horrors of war, of course, if it is not compelled to war by his opponents», - he said later.
Further the emperor strictly adhered to peaceful installations, and not only itself did not enter wars, but also prevented the separate conflicts. In particular, including his efforts the next French-German war did not take place.
Conservative. Alexander II was killed some days before consideration of the constitutional project of Loris-Melikov. The new emperor first doubted what course to go: to continue liberal reforms of the father or to partially curtail them. Under the influence of Pobedonostsev Alexander was inclined to the second option.
Pobedonostsev - one of the emperor's mentors, in his board became one of the chief gray cardinals of policy. Being a liberal in youth (he even cooperated with Herzen's «Bell»), in mature years Pobedonostsev became the convinced conservative believing that further liberal reforms will destroy Russia.
At the new emperor censorship of the press was returned. For the Jews who were associated then with revolutionism quotas for receiving the higher education were established. The well-known «Circular on the cooks 'children» became the most known restrictive act in the educational sphere. However, he did not forbid to study in gymnasiums to children from the poorest families. He only recommended to directors of gymnasiums to approach more carefully selection of children from the poorest sectors of society, considering their opportunities for study. At best this decree affected 0,1% of pupils of gymnasiums as children of cooks and laundresses already extremely seldom studied in gymnasiums, preferring them territorial schools or parish. Anyway, the persecutor of progress of the emperor it is impossible to call, the budgetary expenses for education in his board grew almost by one and a half times.
Governors acquired the right to introduce a regime of the strengthened protection in the territories. In the conditions of this mode the police had the right to arrest for 7 days of suspects of high treasons. In Alexander's reign there were
practically no acts of terrorism and the atmosphere remained rather quiet.
Protectionist. In the economic sphere of Alexander waited for great success. Stable economic growth accompanied all 13 years of reign of the emperor. There was it thanks to protectionist state policy. It was not so simple to achieve it: the principles of free trade actively were defended merchant circles. It was much more favorable to buy goods abroad and to sell them already in Russia, than to start production from scratch. This vicious system was broken by introduction of the high customs duties.
Duty tariffs for those production goods which could be manufactured in Russia were raised to 30% thanks to what it became more favorable to make them in the country, than to buy abroad. Increase in production of cast iron, steel and coal became record for all pre-revolutionary time. Oil -too, but it is necessary to consider that it was practically not developed in last years therefore also growth almost from scratch was high, and in a case with cast iron and steel Russia had rather developed production and before. Establishment of low income tax of joint-stock companies stimulated to open the new enterprises. On average, the Russian industry steadily grew for 7-8% a year.
Order in the field of the railroads was brought. Earlier they were private and differed in very confusing tariff system. Alexander nationalized the most part of roads and installed accurate tariff system thanks to what from unprofitable they became profitable and brought many means in the state budget.
The economic policy of Alexander III was directed to the solution of two major tasks: acceleration of economic development of the country and support and strengthening of positions of the nobility. In the solution of the first task the head of the Ministry of Finance N. H. Bunge was guided by expansion of domestic market, simultaneous rise in agriculture and the industry, consolidation of position of the center of the population.
On May 9, 1881 the law on decrease in the amount of redemption payments and write-off of shortages on them for previous years was adopted. The losses suffered as a result by treasury are designed to cover with increase in a land tax by 1,5 time, a tax on the city real estate, and also rates of duties on tobacco, alcohol and sugar.
Gradual cancellation of a subear tax (18821886) was followed by development of other
forms of the taxation: the income from monetary deposits increased, excises increased, the commerce and industry taxation was transformed, the customs duties are considerably raised (almost twice).
The country, burdensome for the budget, there was a system of the state guarantees of the income of the private railroads. At N. H. Bunge control over railway economy is entered and the repayment by the state private and financing of construction of the state railroads begins.
In 1883, creation of joint-stock private banks is resumed. In 1885 the Noble land bank designed to support landowner land tenure is created (N. H. Bunge objected to its creation).
In January 1887 under pressing of the conservatives accusing it of inability to overcome deficiency of the state budget, Bunge retired.
I. V. Vyshnegradsky (1887-1892), the famous scientist-mathematician and the large exchange businessman who replaced it, kept the general orientation of economic and financial policy of the predecessor, but put the main emphasis on accumulation of money and appreciation of the ruble by financial and operations on the stock exchange. Vyshnegradsky strengthened protectionism in customs policy.
In general for 1880-1890 increase in duties on import brought increase in the income almost by 50%. In 1891 the general revision of a customs tariff for the purpose of its centralization and destruction of local tariffs was carried out. Thanks to protectionist customs policy import to Russia of the foreign capitals increased. In the late eighties it was succeeded to overcome deficiency of the state budget.
Industrial development of Russia in the 80th - the beginning of the 90th years. In most branches of large-scale industry of Russia by 80th years of the 19th century the industrial revolution came to the end. The economic policy of Ministers of Finance Bunge and Vyshnegradsky promoted the accelerated development of industrial production. Russia came out on top in the world on growth rates of oil production and coal. the 90th years are celebrated by active construction of the industrial enterprises. Despite rapid growth of the Russian industry, its lag from the developed countries of the West (the USA, England, Germany, etc.) both on technical equipment and installed power per employee, and on volumes of coal mining, oil, production of metal and cars per capita remained very considerable.
The total amount of production of the heavy industry of Russia by 1896 made less than 1/4 all the made production. The leading place in economy was kept by light industry. Only textile production gave to production 1,5 times bigger, than coal mining, oil, minerals, metal-working and metallurgical industry, combined.
Since 1881 in Russia industrial crisis began. Especially sharply falling of the world prices for grain, and also the general decrease in rates of development of domestic market because of sharp reduction of purchasing power of the peasantry affected economy of a consequence of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. In 18831887 crisis was replaced by a long depression, but at the end of 1887 revival at first in heavy, and then in light industry was noted.
Transport. The government paid huge attention to development of railway transport which was given not only an economic, but also strategic importance. From 80th years construction new and repayment in treasury of the private railroads was developed. To the middle of the 90th years of 60% of all railway system it appeared in hands of the state. Total length of the state railroads in 1894 made 18 776 versts, all by 1896 34 088 versts were constructed. In the eighties the network of railway lines at the western borders of Russia develops.
The river and sea shipping company developed. By 1895 the number of river steamships made 2539, having increased more than by 6 times in comparison with prereform 1860. Development of domestic and foreign trade was directly connected with development of transport. The number of shops, benches, commodity exchanges increases (especially near railway stations). Internal commodity turnover in Russia (without small trade) in 1895 made 8,2 billion rubles, having increased by 3,5 times in comparison with 1873.
Violently foreign market developed. In the early nineties export exceeded import to 150-230 million rubles annually. The active foreign trade balance was reached generally thanks to protectionist tariff policy of the state. In the eighties import duties for coal were three times raised, in 1885 taxes on iron import, in 1887 - for cast iron import were raised. In the second half of the 80th years between Germany and Russia customs war began: on restriction of import to Germany Russia answered the agricultural production with
increase in rates import of products of the German manufacturing industry.
First place in export was strongly won by bread.
To the second place, having forced out wool, there was a wood.
In high gear export of industrial goods which reached 25% of all export grew. In import in the mid-nineties cars came out on top, on the second place there was a cotton raw import. Then there were a metal, coal, tea, oil.
Germany (25% of the Russian export, 32% of import) was the main foreign trade partner of Russia. On the second place England (20% of export and 20% of import) was removed. The third place in the Russian export was taken by Holland (11%), in import - the USA (9%).
Cancellation of a subear tax. Cancellation of a subear tax became one of the most significant changes in the financial sphere. Now all of us got used that each citizen pays taxes. But Alexander took the risky step which alleviated the financial burden of the peasantry which was the main draft estate. It completely cancelled the subear tax which was considerable help for the budget. Instead of a tax the number of indirect taxes was increased: excises on vodka, tobacco, sugar, matches, etc.
Despite refusal of a subear tax which was one of the main sources of replenishment of the budget in former one and a half centuries the competent economic policy of the emperor allowed not only to offset these losses, but also to repeatedly fill them. The budget from scarce became surplus and considerably grew.
Tsar-artist. In Soviet period when all former tsars were characterized exclusively negatively, not the most flatter characteristic was assigned to Alexander - «sergeant-major» which had to show the limitation allegedly inherent I reign. But actually it was not so. Alexander very vividly was interested in painting and in young years itself often drew and took lessons from artists. And here he, on the contrary, did not love military parades. Having become the emperor, he was forced to leave former hobby for which there was not enough time because of public affairs any more, but kept love to art. It collected an outstanding collection of painting which became later a basis for creation of the Russian Museum which appeared after the death of the emperor and called in his honor.
Army and fleet. Well-known expression of the emperor: «Russia has only two allies - army and the fleet», - became winged. The fleet endured not the best times at former emperors, but at Alexander III the large-scale program of modernization and modernization of the fleet thanks to what about one hundred new ships were put into operation, including 17 battleships - the ships strongest at that time was carried out. Also the Black Sea Fleet which Russia lost after the Crimean war was restored. Thanks to it the Russian fleet which was traditionally considered minor to army became the third on force after two strongest powers of that time: Britain and France.
For construction of the fleet modern shipbuilding plants were required. The extensive program of modernization of shipyards was carried out thanks to what it was succeeded to refuse practice of placing orders for construction of sea vessels abroad.
The army was reweaponed by Mosin's rifles which became the main small arms of the Russian army the next 60 years, including the Great Patriotic War. And only emergence of the Ka-lashnikov forced to refuse from checked not in one military conflict of reliable weapon.
Legalization of duels. In Alexander nTs government, duels in the officer environment were actually legalized. Special Rules about trial of the quarrels happening in the officer environment provided that the duel can take place according to the decision of Officer court of honor which could either reconcile officers, or approve their duel on condition of intolerable insults. In case the Court of honor approved a duel, but someone from participants did not come to it, not been officer was obliged to leave in two weeks army.
Perhaps, on the decision on a regulation of duels of the emperor an incident which participant it became in youth pushed. Absolutely still young Crown Prince quarreled with the officer. As the officer could not challenge the successor of a throne to a duel, he demanded from it apologies, threatening to be shot otherwise. Crown Prince did not begin to apologize, and the officer really committed suicide. Having learned about this case, the father emperor grew furious and forced Alexander to follow the coffin of the died officer at his funeral.
Tsar-railroader. Alexander III considered development of the railroads by the priority direction. In its board private roads were turned into uniform related system, and their most part
is redeemed and began to belong to treasury [7]. At it it was constructed the Transcaucasian and Zakaspiysky railroads, construction of the Great Siberian way - the Trans-Siberian Railway which connected the European part of Russia with the Asian Far East which contemporaries called the wonder of the world and which after completion of construction (already at Nicholas II) became one of the best-known Russian brands in the world and one of the most recognizable symbols of Russia in the western countries began [4, 18]. In 13 years of government of Alexander, more than 10 thousand kilometers of the railroads were laid.
Foreign policy. In foreign policy at the time of Alexander contradictory results were achieved. Influence on Bulgaria in due time exempted with the assistance of the Russian army from Ottoman dominion was finally lost. First influence of St. Petersburg on the Bulgarian affairs was so big that even the Bulgarian constitution was written in the Russian capital [8], and the Bulgarian monarch could not be elected without approval from Russia.
However Bulgarians got under the Austrian influence soon and stirred up such trouble because of which the next large war with participation of Turkey nearly broke out. As a result Russia even broke off the diplomatic intercourses with Bulgarians. Eventually everything ended with the fact that the emperor waved a hand to Bulgaria that was under very strong German and the Austrian influence.
On the other hand, there was a rapprochement and the subsequent conclusion of the military alliance with France. Despite ideological disagreements (France - the republic, and Russia -the monarchy), this union was strong and existed nearly 30 years - before disintegration of the Russian Empire [5, 92]. Besides, It should be noted its efforts on prevention of the conflict between France and Germany which managed to be extinguished, without having allowed it to inflame before the all-European war.
Accident. In 1888 the imperial train got to a serious train accident near Kharkov. In full operation the most part of cars of structure derailed and turned over. All his family went to this moment with the emperor. On happy combination of circumstances, successfully threw out all of them on an embankment and none of a family seriously suffered (several people from the servants and protection died) [9, 78]. However the tsar hold-
ing a roof of the car that his family was chosen from under it on the shoulders affected the health. Soon after accident he began to complain of back pains. It became clear that it began nephrite - an inflammation of kidneys. Over time the disease only progressed, and the tsar even more often was ill. From the mighty and radiating with health giant it turned into the pale and painful person. On November 1, 1894 he died at the age of only 49 years.
References
1. Hosking, Geoffrey. Russian People and Empire 1552-1917, London: HarperCollins, 1997.
2. John F. Hutchinson, Late Imperial Russia: 1890-1917. NY. 1999. Taylor&Francis
3. Charles Lowe. Alexander III of Russia. W. Heinemann, 1895.
S. Oldenburg Reign of the Emperor Nicholas II. T1. Ch.1-2. Munich. 1949.
4. Scott Malsom Diaries and Letters - Alexander III http://www.alexanderpalace.org/pa-lace/ alexbio.html
5. Alexander Alexandrovich Romanov, III http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi7page =gr&GRid=7033272&pt=Alexander%20III%20 Romanov
The board it was contradictory. On the one hand, it left behind the country, which is steadily developing in the economic plan, the modern fleet and army. On the other hand, he did not make anything for overcoming contradictions in society. He only for a while froze the passions boiling in it, but did not solve the main problems, and they a rough stream rushed already on his successor - Nicolay Aleksandrovich.
6. http://rbth.com/multimedia/2015/03/25/ro manov
7. Russian royalists site http://www.king-family.ru/romanovi/familiya.php
8. Romanovs lectures. The history of the Russian state and the Romanov dynasty: current problems in the study. Kostroma. May 29-30, 2008.
9. The Romanoff Family Association. Prince Nicholas Romanovich Romanov. The Romanoff Family Association. http://www.romanovfami-ly.org/family.html
10. Wood, Alan The Origins of the Russian Revolution 1861-1917, 2nd edn, London and New York: Routledge, 1993, 'Lancaster Pamphlets' series.
