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115Archaeoastronomy and Ancient Technologies
www.aaatec.org ISSN 2310-2144
On etymology of Sinitic, Indo-European and Uralic terms for 'star' supported by regular sound correspondences
Jingyi Gao
Beijing International Studies University, China; E-mail: gao.jingyi@bisu.edu.cn Institute of the Estonian Language, Tallinn, Estonia; E-mail: jingyi.gao@eki.ee University of Tartu, Estonia; E-mail: jingyi.gao@ut.ee
Abstract
Using etymological methods, the present study has researched four Sinitic and Germanic shared (Sino-Germanic) etymologies (etyma) and two Sinitic and Uralic shared (Sino-Uralic) etyma. Two of the Sino-Germanic etyma form a rhyme correspondence. Three of the Sino-Germanic etyma form an onset correspondence. Two of the Sino-Uralic etyma form another rhyme correspondence. These regular sound changes validate the etymological connections in question. The Sino-Germanic term for 'star' and Sino-Uralic term for 'star' are supported.
Keywords: etymology, rhyme correspondence, onset correspondence, Sinitic, Uralic, Sino-Uralic, Germanic, Indo-European, Sino-Germanic, astronomical terms, star
Introduction
The Indo-European term for 'star' (Proto-Indo-European *h2Ster-on 'star' (Kroonen, 2013, p. 478); equivalents e.g. Danish stjerne 'star'; Swedish stjarna 'star'; Old Norse stjarna 'star'; English star; Old English steorra 'star'; German Stern 'star'; Old High German sterno/sterro/stern 'star'; Gothic stairno 'star'; Middle Irish ser 'star'; Latin stella 'star'; Avestan\Zend star/stara 'star'; Sanskrit ^ (str) w; Tocharian-A sren 'stars') has been compared to the Sinitic term for 'star' [MJHOC-W *sieg; equivalents e.g. Mandarin xing (xiy) 'star'; Cantonese sing1/seng1 'star'; Minnan sing/tshinn/tshenn 'star';3 and suggested as a Sino-Germanic etymology (Gao, 2008, p. 200).
The Uralic term for 'star' ("Proto-Finno-Wolgaic" *tasta 'star > sign' (Redei, 1988, p. 793); equivalents e.g. Estonian taht\tahe 'star, sign', tahtis 'significant, important'; Finnish tahti\tahte- 'star, sign'; Mordvin teste/tesce/tasta 'star, sign') has been compared to the Sinitic term for 'extreme' [^]HOC-W *that; equivalents e.g. Mandarin tai 'extremely'; Cantonese taai3 'extremely'; Minnan thai 'extremely' 3 and suggested as a Sino-Uralic etymology (Gao, 2008, p. 142).
The present study researches and supports these two etyma with regular sound correspondences.
Materials and methods
The present paper is a comparative etymology study. The Sinitic language family is compared to the Germanic or the Uralic language family.
The Sinitic etyma are led by Chinese etyma (DOMs) that are historically attested Chinese glyphs (Sinograms). Their historical glosses are cited from the Chinese classical dictionaries (121-SW; 543-YP; 1008-GY). Their historical phonological values are cited from the work Yun jing (1161-YJ) with reference to the dictionary Guangyun (1008-GY) and transcribed according to Appendix 1. Their attested equivalents including forms and glosses are represented by Beijing Yan (Mandarin) (written in Hanyu Pinyin including non-simplified forms), Guangzhou Yue (Cantonese) (written in Jyutping), Taipei Min (Minnan) (written in Tai-lo), Sino-Japanese1 Goon and Kan-on (written in orthography and Hepburn), Sino-Korean (written in orthography and the Revised Romanization) and Sino-Vietnamese (written in orthography), in this fixed order. Their historically attested Old Chinese (OC) rhymes are given according to (Wang, 1980) and reconstructively transcribed according to Appendix 2.
The Germanic etyma are based on the relevant etymological dictionaries (Nielsen, 1966; Kluge, Seeebold, 2011) and (Kroonen, 2013). Their attested equivalents including contemporary forms and glosses are represented by Danish, Swedish, Norwegian (Bokmal), Icelandic, Old Norse, English, Old English, Dutch, Old Low German, German, Old High German, and Gothic, in this fixed order.
The Uralic etyma are based on the relevant etymological dictionaries (Redei, 1988) and (Itkonen, Kulonen, 2001). Their attested equivalents including contemporary forms and glosses are represented by Estonian, Finnish, Sami\Lappish North/Lule/Inari/Skolt/Kildin (equivalents up to (Lehtiranta, 1989); North Sami forms are adjusted according to (Sammallahti, 1989), Mordvin, Mari\Cheremis, Udmurt\ Votyak, Komi\Zyrian, Khanty\Ostyak, Mansi\Vogul, Hungarian, Nenets\Yurak, Enets\Yen, Nganasan\Tawgi, Selkup and Kamass, in this fixed order.
For the etyma in question, etymological equivalents in other languages (other Indo-European, Tibeto-Burman etc. 2 ) claimed by other scholars are checked in relevant etymological or comparative works, e.g. (Pokorny, 1959; Redei, 1988; Peiros, Starostin, 1996; Itkonen, Kulonen, 2001; Schuessler, 2007; Metsmagi, Sedrik, Soosaar, 2012). Such extended equivalents are mostly cited as in references.
Non-English glosses are translated to English in the present study. Some modifications within Germanic or Uralic etyma (adding or deleting equivalents) are made and remarked in the present study. Refutations of previously claimed etymological equivalents are given in footnotes.
Language reconstructions are listed only for reference reasons. All the attested language data are compared instead of trusting the phonetic and semantic details of reconstructions, because the reconstructions are subject to changes depending on (newly compared) attested linguistic data. Two Old Chinese (OC) reconstructions, OC-W according to (Wang, 1980) and OC-Z
1 Sino-Japanese is a linguistic term for the portion of the Japanese vocabulary that is of Chinese origin or makes use of morphemes of Chinese origin (similar to the use of Latin or Greek in English). The same applies to the terms Sino-Korean and Sino-Vietnamese. They do not mean
2 Other language comparisons involving Sinitic are mainly: (1) Sino-Yeniseian (Ligeti, 1950; Gao 2017), Sino-Tibetan-Yeniseian (Lewy, 1933; Bouda, 1957; Sedlacek, 2008) or Sino-Caucasian including Tibeto-Burman (Starostin, 1982, pp. 44-237; Starostin 1984, pp. 19-38; Starostin, 1991, pp. 12-41; Starostin, Ruhlen, 1994, pp. 70-92); (2) Sino-Tibetan-Athapaskan (Shafer, 1952, 1957, 1969); (3) Sino-Austric or Sino-Austronesian (Conrady, 1916, pp. 475-504; Conrady, 1923; Wulff, 1942; Sagart, 1990, 1993, 1994) and Sino-Tibetan-Austronesian (Sagart, 2005, pp. 161-176). In an etymological study, all language comparisons should be equally treated at the etyma level. Single etymological comparisons can be correct or incorrect, but the validity of the general directions cannot be fairly discussed until most etyma are clearly demonstrated. However, these other comparisons do not touch the etyma in question in the present study.
according to (Zheng-zh ang, 2013), are listed. Other reconstructions are quoted from the direct references.
Proto-Sinitic, also known as Proto-Chinese, cannot be compared because it is only a theoretical notion without reconstructed results. Proto-Sino-Tibetan cannot be compared because it is a hypothetical notion without a sufficient amount of etyma representing a sufficient number of the languages in question. Many scholars are still comparing only Tibetan, Burmese or another Tibeto-Burman language to Sinitic e.g. (Shi, 2000; Zhang, Jacques, Lai, 2019). The works (Benedict, 1972) and (Matisoff, 2003) have compared more "Sino-Tibetan languages", whereas many comparisons do not touch Sinitic. The work (Peiros, Starostin, 1996) compares only five "Sin o-Tibetan languages": Sinitic, Tibetan, Burmese, Jingpho\Kachin and Mizo\Lushai, whereas still many comparisons do not touch Sinitic. Etyma without Sinitic equivalents cannot be labeled as "Sin o-Tibetan". Etyma with equivalents only in one Tibeto-Burman language and Sinitic may be non-genetically diffused (loaned/borrowed) from Sinitic. There is a website called "The Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus" (https://stedt.berkeley.edu), whereas its content is so far rather a thesaurus (book of synonyms, collection of X-English dictionaries) than an etymological dictionary. This is the current situation of the comparative studies between Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman. Moreover, the Sino-Tibetan hypothesis has been successively criticized (Miller 1974; Beckwith, 2002, pp. 113-158; Beckwith, 2006, pp. 179-200; Beckwith, 2008, pp. 161-201; He, 2004; Guo, 2010, p. 21; Zhang, 2012, 2013, 2014; Qu, Jin, 2013; Qu, 2019 ). B esides, there are hyp otheses for the multiple origins of Sinitic (Li, 1990; Schuessler, 2003). In sum, the notion Sino-Tibetan cannot be considered as a certain language family which represents Sinitic.
Etymological equivalents are given in orthographies or transcriptions. Equivalents in Western alphabets are given in boldface if they are found in official languages covered by ISO 639-1. Equivalents in Roman alphabets are given in italic. Cyrillic alphabets are transliterated into Roman alphabets according to ISO 9. If a given equivalent word is longer than one morpheme, the targeted morpheme is underlined (if certain). In successive data, dialectal and authorial variants are separated by a slash (/); grammatical variants are separated by a backslash (\); while lexical variants are separated by a comma (,).
Ancient and fully etymological Chinese etyma (DOMs) are put in the brackets [] . Ordinary Chinese terms are put in the brackets O or written without brackets. Double quotation marks ("") are added when its target is quoted but not agreed. D ouble arrows (^ or indicate genetic diffusions ('inherited' in Western linguistics; 'born' in Sino-linguistics). Single arrows (^ or indicate non-genetic diffusions ('loaned/borrowed' in Western linguistics; 'educated' in Sino-linguistics).
The methods follow traditional etymology cf. (Vossius, 1622; Lemon, 1783; Rask, 1818; Gao, 2008) and renewed etymology, cf. (Gao, 2012, 2014, 2017, 2018, 2019a, 2019b, 2020; Gao, Tender, 2020). This study includes also methods of Sino-phonology, cf. (1008-GY; 1161-YJ) which are ancient technologies.
Results and discussion
The common format of the next etymological paragraphs is:
#Number of etymon) [DOM] Hhistorical reference: phonetic description original gloss 'gloss' (transcribed from); Mandarin form 'gloss'; Cantonese form 'gloss'; Minnan form 'gloss'; Sino-Japanese form; Sino-Korean form; Sino-Vietnamese form; {OC rhyme group; OC-W reconstruction; OC-Z reconstruction} 3
(Read: The Sinitic etymon [DOM] with the contents L..3 ) is or has been compared (reference) to the Germanic or Uralic etymon after the equivalents: ... (reference).
This etymon has been or not been identified in other languages (reference). This paragraph is used for other language groups compared in other directions (not Sinitic ~ Germanic or Uralic but Sinitic ~ other, Germanic ~ other, or Uralic ~ other) by other scholars.
#l\ rSl ITr^£(121-SW):rmn . 3M(543-YP):r^n£T0 . ««(1008-GY):#»0
#1) IffiJ li [M]m«^ffl±S^M('star'); [M] »¿Mft?№ft('star'); M®
. »«»(1161-YJ): №WSH+SHH#¥SttH[£]«(outbound, final-35, labialized-, division-4, tone-A, dental initial [fricative+] voiced-('star');
)(0eapA); Mandarin xïng (xïy) 'star'; Cantonese singl/sengl 'star'; Minnan sing/tshinn/tshenn 'star'; Sino-Japanese Go-on L XO (shô); Kan-on -ttc^sei); Sino-Korean ^(seong); Sino-Vietnamese tinh; {OC rhyme *-n(0)a; OC-W *sieg; OC-Z "*sle:g"}3 has been compared (Gao, 2008, p.200) to the Germanic etymon after the equivalents: Danish stjerne 'star'; Swedish stjarna 'star'; Norwegian stjerne 'star'; Icelandic stjarna 'star'; Old Norse stjarna 'star'; English star; Old English steorra 'star'; Dutch ster 'star'; Old Low German sterro 'star'; German Stern 'star'; Old High German sterno/sterro/stern 'star'; Gothic stairnô 'star'; {Proto-Germanic *ster(r)a/ôn- 'star' (Kroonen, 2013, p. 478)}. {Proto-Sino-Germanic *stepa-R 'star'}
This etymon has been identified in other Indo-European languages: {Celtic: Middle Irish ser 'star'; Welsh sêr 'stars'; Cornish ser 'stars'; Breton ser 'stars'}; {Italic: Latin stëlla 'star'; Italian stella w; French étoile w; Spanish estrella 'star'; Portuguese estrela 'star'; Romanian stea 'star'}; Greek aoxspi (astéri) 'star'; Ancient Greek àax^p (astêr) 'star'; Hittite (hasterz) 'star'; [Old] Armenian wuu^ (astf) 'star'; {Indo-Iranian: Avestan\Zend star/stara 'star'; Kurdish estêre 'star'; Ossetian CTta^bi (st'aly) 'star'; [Classical] Persian »j^ (se târe) 'star'; Tajik CHTopa (sitora) 'star'; Pashto storay w; Sanskrit ^ (str) 'star', ^ (tr) 'star (Vedic)', ^T (tara) 'star'}; Tocharian-A sre 'star', sren 'stars'; Tocharian-B scirye 'star'; {Proto-Indo-European *ster- 'star' (Pokorny, 1959, p. 1027); *h2Ster, *h2Stér-ôn (Kroonen, 2013, p. 478)}. {^ Proto-Sino-Germanic}
This etymon has not been identified in other languages.
The following etyma #2-4 are studied in order to form a rhyme correspondence or an onset correspondence with the etymon #1.
-WO\ T^l [7^ï(121-SW):ri—M 3M(543-YP):rm «»«(1008-GY):
#2) [I—I]:H®&i*i-Ê('luckily'); [ —] Bftniftaa—('encounter, luckily');
»«»(1161-YJ): №«SH+iH-«±S»ft^[:£M(outbound, final-35, labialized-, division-2, tone-B,
—^®&№('121-SW said: luckily');
laryngeal initial [fricative+] voiced+)(fiôa^B); Mandarin xing (xirj) 'luckily; Cantonese hang6 'luckily; Minnan hïng 'luckily; Sino-Japanese Go-on WkO (gyô); Kan-on do (kô); Sino-Korean S(haeng); Sino-Vietnamese hanh; {OC rhyme *-n(9)a; OC-W *yeg; OC-Z "*gre:g?"}3 is compared (first publication) to the Germanic etymon after the equivalents: Danish gerne 'willingly; Swedish garna 'willingly; Norwegian gjerne 'willingly; Icelandic gjarn 'willing', gjarna 'willingly; Old Norse gjarna 'willing', girna 'desire'; English yearn; Old English georn 'eager', giernian 'yearn'; Dutch gaarne 'willingly'; Old Low German gerno 'wmingly, girnean 'desire'; German gern/gerne 'willingly; Old High German gerno 'willingly'; Gothic gairnjan 'desire'; {Proto-Germanic *gerna- 'desirous' (Kroonen, 2013, p. 175)}. {Proto-Sino-Germanic *gopa-R 'yearn'}
3 Refutation: Previously claimed e.g. (Gamkrelidze, Ivanov, 1995, pp. 591-592) etymological equation from this Proto-Indo-European etymon to Proto-Semantic *'ac-tr - 'god(dess)' is rejected due to phonetic and semantic inconsistencies. It was already rejected by Bomhard as some other prior studies (Bomhard, 2019, p. 2). Bomhard suggested that this Proto-Indo-European etymon is a derivative of the Proto-Indo-European root
*as- 'to burn, to glow' (Pokorny, 1959, p. 68). This analysis is not relevant to the present study. We are observing rather a later diffusion from Germanic to Sinitic than a primitive diffusion from Proto-Indo-European to Sinitic.
This etymon has been identified in other Indo-European languages: Old Irish gor 'devout'; Latin horior 'encourage, urge'; [Ancient] Greek xaipw (khairo/chairo) 'rejoice'; Hittite kariia(tt)a(ri) 'be gracious'; Avestan\Zend zara- 'strive, goal'; Sanskrit haryati 'like, delight in'; Tocharian-A kar(y) 'laugh'; Tocharian-B ker(y) 'laugh'; {Proto-Indo-European *gher- 'yearn for' (Pokorny, 1959, p. 440); *gherh1-no- (Kroonen, 2013, p. 175)}. {^ Sino-Germanic}
This etymon has not been identified in other languages.
Ul\ rpi I7^i(121-SW): 3M(543-YP):«T0 ««(1008-GY):#»0
#3) LK]l M.&#S^lW^'KMft('stinky pork'); S.Mft('stinky pork'); MM
. »«»(1161-YJ): [=M]№«SH+SHH#¥Stt^[£]«(outbound, final-35, labialized-, division-4, tone-A, dental initial [fricative+] ^('stinky pork');
voiced-)(0eapA); Mandarin xing (xiy) 'fish stink; Cantonese singJ/sengJ 'stink; Minnan sing/tshinn/
tshenn 'stink'; Sino-Japanese Go-on LxO (sho); Kan-on ItU(sei); Sino-Korean o(seong); Sino-
Vietnamese tinh; {OC rhyme *-n(9)a; OC-W *sieg; OC-Z "*se:g"}3 has been compared (Gao 2008, p. 200) to the Germanic etymon after the equivalents: Danish stinke 'stink'; Swedish stinka 'stmk; Norwegian stinke 'stink; English stink; Old English stincan 'stink'; Dutch stinken 'stink; Old Low German stinkan 'stink'; German stinken 'stink; Old High German stinkan 'stink; {Proto-Germanic *stinkwan- "'thrust, clash;" stink' (Kroonen, 2013, p. 480)}. {Proto-Sino-Germanic *stegka 'stink'} This etymon has not been identified in other Indo-European languages.4
3 3
This etymon has been identified in some Tibeto-Burman languages: Jingpho\Kachin siq 'smell,
scent, odor of fresh, raw food'; Chepang sdyy- 'emit smell, odor, be rotten'; Lepcha muq-siy, Rawang pusey_ 'stench'; Lushai tee^/teen < treeyh 'ill-smelling' (Schuessler, 2007, p. 540). {^ Sino-Germanic} This etymon has not been identified in other languages.
UA\ r^l [7^i(121-SW): 3M(543-YP):Si0 ««(1008-
#4) Ail№('start of woman'); ^£5ii!№('121-SW said: start of woman');
GY):B±0 «»(1161-YJ): rt«SASH#±Stt^[£]«(inbound, 8th final, labialized-, division-3, tone-B, dental initial [fricative+]
!№('start');
voice -)(0emjB); Mandarin shi (si) 'start'; Cantonese ci2 'start'; Minnan su/si 'start'; Sino-Japanese Go-on L (shi); Kan-on L (shi); Sino-Korean ^(si); Sino-Vietnamese thi; {OC rhyme *-?a; OC-W *eia; OC-Z "*hljui?"}3 has been compared (Gao, 2008, p. 206) to the Germanic etymon after the equivalents: Danish stjwrt 'tail'; Swedish stjart 'tail'; Norwegian stjert 'tail'; Icelandic stertur 'tail; Old Norse stertr 'tail'; English start; Old English steort 'tail'; Dutch staart 'tail'; German Sterz 'tail, handle'; Old High German sterz 'tail'; {Proto-Germanic *sterta- 'tail' (Kluge, Seebold, 2011, p. 883)}. {Proto-Sino-Germanic *sterta 'tail, start'}
This etymon has not been identified in other languages.
■U<Z\ r-b~y |7 3S(543-YP):te*ffl ««(1008-GY):teS0 «»(1161-YJ):^«S+
#5) L^V Sft('extremely'); -Bft*ftaft('extremely, big, through');
SS-iiSSHS(outbound, final-15, labialized-, division-1, tone-C, alveolar initial voiced+)^^^Cy compounds' y^CPH
'extremely-solar (sun)'; 'extremely-lunar (moon)'; 'extremely-year (Jupiter)'; 'extremely-white (Venus)'; Mandarin
tai 'extremely', tgtiaq (tai-yang) 'extremely-solar (sun)', tai-in (iM-yin) 'extremely-lunar (moon)', t^-suei (tgl-sui) 'extremely-year (Jupiter)S tai-bai 'extremely-white (Venus)'; Cantonese taai3 'extremely', taai3-j°eng4 'extremely-solar (sun)', taai3-iaml 'extremely-lunar (moon)S taai3-seoi3 'extremely-year (Jupiter)S taai3-baak6 'extremely-white (Venus)'; Minnan thai 'extremelyS thai-iOng 'extremely-solar (sun)', thai-im 'extremely-lunar (moon)S thai-su£ 'extremely-year
(Jupiter)', thai-pik 'extremely-white (Venus)'; Sino-Japanese Go-on fc U (tai); Kan-on fc U (tai); Sino-Korean EH(/ae); Sino-Vietnamese thai; {OC rhyme ^ « *-ta; OC-W *that; OC-Z "*tha:ds"}| has been compared (Gao, 2008, p. 142) to the Uralic etymon after the equivalents: Estonian
taht\tahe 'star, sign', tahtis 'significant, important'; Finnish tahti\tahte- 'star, sign'; Finnic other
4 Refutation: Previously claimed (Kroonen, 2013, p. 480) etymological equation from these Germanic equivalents to Gothic stigqan 'hit'; Old Norse st0kkva 'leap, jump, flee'; etc. ; Old English stincan 'leap, spring'; Lithuanian stengti 'exert oneself; and Latin re-stinguere 'push back, suppress' is rejected due to semantic inconsistencies. Old English stincan 'leap, spring' must be a homonym to Old English stincan 'smell, stink'.
te'dltahtiltiahtiltahtaz 'star'; Sami\Lappish dastel--l--ltastltast 'star'; Mordvin testeItesceltasta 'star, sign'; Mari\Cheremis tistdltiste 'house sign l name sign'; {"Proto-Finno-Wolgaic" *tasta 'star > sign' (Redei, 1988, p. 793)}. {Proto-Sino-Uralic *do>ta-S 'extreme'}
This etymon has not been identified in other languages.
r^ill |7^£(121-SW): 3M(543-YP):^M ««(1OO8-GY):SS0
#6) L^UJ^ ^»ft('divide'); ^»ft('divide');
. M^(1161-YJ):^WS-+-^ra#ASS^®»S(outbound, final-21, labialized-, division-4, tone-ft('row, order, list, spread, 121-SW said: divide');
d, dental alveolar initial voiced+)(ieatD); Mandarin lie 'row, split' (^); Cantonese laat6llit6 'row, split' (^); Minnan liat 'row, split'; Sino-Japanese Go-on ^^ (rechi); Kan-on tio (retsu); Sino-Korean %(ryeol) lS(yeol); Sino-Vietnamese liet; {OC rhyme Mf *-ta; OC-W *liat; OC-Z "*red"'}3 has been compared (Gao, 2008, p. 179) to the Uralic etymon after the equivalents: Estonian laht\lahe 'bay', lahti 'open'; Finnish lahtNahte- 'bay'; Finnic other laksilrnht 'bay'; Sami\Lappish luoktalluoktal luohtalluxiAlmxt 'bay'; {"Proto-Finno-Lappic" *lakte 'bay' (Korhonen, 1981, p. 90)}. {Proto-Sino-Uralic *leta-X 'divide'}
This etymon has not been identified in other languages.5 Overview
The etyma #1 [MJ and #2 [^J form a rhyme correspondence (Table 1). Table 1. Rhyme correspondence (Rc#2020JGaoA3t1): Old Chinese rhyme *-n(9)a ^ MandarinlMinnan -iq (-ing) ^ Danish -erne ^ Swedish -arna ^ German -ern ^ Gothic -airn-^ Avestan\Zend -ara
DOM Mandarin Cantonese Minnan Danish Swedish German Gothic Avestan
[Ml - {xins) xij g) singl sing stjerne stjärna Stern stairno stara
'star' 'star' 'star' 'star' 'star' 'star' 'star' 'star'
m x (xing) Xllj g) hang6 h Ing gerne gärna gern gairnjan zara-
'luckily' 'luckily' 'luckily' 'willingly' 'willingly' 'willingly' 'desire' 'strive'
The etyma #1 [Ml , #3 [Ml and #4 [$£] form an onset correspondence (Table 2). Table 2. Onset correspondence (Oc#2020JGaoA3t2): Mandarin x-/s- & Cantonese/Minnan s-& Danish/Swedish st(j)- & English/German st-
DOM Mandarin Cantonese Minnan Danish Swedish English Dutch German
[Ml - (x i ng) xirj g) singl sing stjerne stjärna star ster Stern
'star' 'star' 'star' 'star' 'star' 'star' 'star' 'star'
[®l - (x ing) xirj g) singl sing stinke stinka stink stinken stinken
'stinky' 'stinky' 'stinky' 'stink' 'stink' 'stink' 'stink' 'stink'
[fêl sfhi) ci2 su/si stjxrt stjärt start staart Sterz
'start' 'start' 'start' 'tail' 'tail' 'start' 'tail' 'tail'
The etyma #5 [^J and #6 [^i|J form a rhyme correspondence (Table 3). Table 3. Rhyme correspondence (Rc#2020JGaoA3t3): Old Chinese rhyme M f *-ta Estonian -aht\-ahe : Finnish -ahti\-ahte-
DOM Mandarin Cantonese Minnan Estonian Finnish North Sami
m tài taai3 thai täkt\täke täkti\täkte- --
'extremely' 'extremely' 'extremely' 'star, sign' 'star, sign'
[^ji liè laat6 Hat laht\lahe lahtilahte- luokta
'row, split' 'row, split' 'row, split' 'bay' 'bay, open' 'bay'
5 Refutation: Previously claimed (Itkonen, Kulonen, 2001, vol. 2, p. 36) etymological equation from Finnic to Baltic: Lithuanian lanktis 'swift, reel'; Latvian licis 'bay' is rejected due to semantic and phonetic inconsistencies.
Conclusions
Using etymological methods, the present study has researched four Sinitic and Germanic shared (Sino-Germanic) etymologies (etyma) and two Sinitic and Uralic shared (Sino-Uralic) etyma. Two of the Sino-Germanic etyma form a rhyme correspondence. Three of the Sino-Germanic etyma form an onset correspondence. Two of the Sino-Uralic etyma form another rhyme correspondence. These regular sound changes validate the etymological connections in question. The Sino-Germanic term for 'star' and Sino-Uralic term for 'star' are supported.
Appendix 1: Transcription of 1161-JY HM (Gao, 2014, pp. 81-83) with revision
1) Bffl (initials)_
dental alveolar laryngeal dental velar alveolar MS labial
ms ms ms ss sm m ss sm s m m ms s » m m ms s m m ms s *m m
n i Í fi h ? 6 e dz ts 0 g kh k n d t» t m b p» p
2) M«M.g (rimes) (with
rtW(a) (incl.»WS+^S-+[false »(s)]) »W(a) (excl.»WStAS-t[false »(s)])
«M-RSS-M'&ten) (^a«(/on/)) tt-tSHB^(Dj) (att«(/är|/))
S*0M£(uiW Ig**M(ai). ÍH^fu). ÍSAM(uu),, tt*tIM(a¿).
A*+-M(a). a«*t=M£(«) (sä«(/./)) MS-tAM(a). fi*Ht£(-a) (ag«(/a/))
UrtAÄee) (a*«(/a/))
«»*-S«MtAM(sn) . «B-S#jStA£(-sn)
ft-astAM(sn) . £-«*=t£(-sn) (^»«(/an/))
fí*I=ttB(íw) (ati(/iw/)) Sä*a*=tIM(aw) . BS-tA^(-aw) (^iS«(/aw/))
BB-«*S=t-M(a0) . B«-«MS=t=£(-ar|) (ag«(/a0/)) *m-BS*HtHH(a| . *m-B®S=t0^(-ar|)
B»-««*0t=M(aji) . H-ÍÍUBtiéeap) (^B«(/a0/)) *m*-»S®*HtIH(aji)
«-«S=tA^("am) (ag«(/am/))
modification of D tone codas: ~gD^~kD; ~jD^~jsC; ~nD^~tD; ~nD^~tD; ~pD^~cD; ~mD^~pD.
3) B^ (tones): T-A. ±-B. S-C. ,
4) M^ (medials)
=« 0*
M »M 4M e[el etil
-Ö[-UIl l -e[-e] -e[-i]
p[yl o[o] 0] ?[yl
5)M« (nucleus)
W sts «tS st« «t«
srt tu[ui l ui[ui] i[i ]:u [U ] i[fl
Brt a[s l:o[ol aM e[e] e[ e]:a [ 0]
s[a] s [a] S[E] S[E]
» a[ai:p[üi a[a] ä[a] ä[a]
5) Xftff ¡SB* (other technicl terms)
Sino-linguistics m *m s ms M
Linguistics voiced- aspirated+ voiced+ voiced± labialised- labialised+ labialised± = rounded+
Linguistics in Chinese m a iwma «« HS
Appendix 2: Reconstructive transcription of OC rhymes (Gao, 2014, p. 79) with revision
»M *-la «M *-la KM *-6a ÍM *-öa ÍM *-a SM *-o 4M *-a AM *-wa WM *-wa
WM *-ta *-ta KM *-ea SM *-ea «M *-ka SM *-ko «M *-ka ÄM *-«a MM SM *-pa ^M *-pa
ÍM *-n(t)a ÄM *-n(t)a ÄW *-n(e)a »ffl *-n(e)a »M *-0(k)a SM *-|(k)o MM *-0(k)a fiM *-m(p)a SM *-m(p)a
Acknowledgments
This study is supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (2020YFE0201600) and the B&R Joint Laboratory of Eurasian Anthropology (18490750300).
Cited Chinese Classics
121-SW - Xu, S. |f'R. Shuo wen jie zi [Explaining simple glyphs and analysing
compound glyphs]. Luoyang Han (China), 121.
543-YP - Gu, Y. Yu pian [Jade book], Jiankang (Nanjing), Liang
(China), 543.
1008-GY - Chen, P. deng Da song cong xiu guangyun [The grand
rhyme dictionary reworked by the Great Song Empire]. Dongjing (Kaifeng), Song (China), 1008.
1161-YJ - Zhang, L. (jiao) Yun jing |f!M [Rhyme mirror]. Lin'an (Hangzhou),
Song (China), 1161.
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