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М. Пехоцки, Я. Вышински
ОБРАЗ РОССИИ НА
ОСНОВЕ ПРОГРАММЫ
ПОЛЬСКОГО
ОБЩЕСТВЕННОГО
ТЕЛЕВИДЕНИЯ
«WIADOMOSCI»
(„ИЗВЕСТИЯ") В 2017 Г.
Аннотация
Статья посвящена анализу медаипро-странства Польши. Из-за сложных исторических отношений в прошлом, Россия часто служит отрицательной точкой отсчета в публичных дебатах в Польше. По историческим аналогиям Россия представлена как продолжение СССР и угроза польскому суверенитету, что особенно заметно в вопросах, связанных с энергетической безопасностью, аннексией Крыма или Смоленской катастрофой.
Авторы решили изучить, как Российская Федерация представлена в основном издании «Wiadomosd» („Известия"), ведущей информационной службы общественного вещания. Потому что после выборов в 2015 году часто возникали обвинения в явной пристрастности журналистов этой инстанции к правительству и президенту, авторы предполагают, что в этой риторике можно будет увидеть сближение с риторикой, представленной партией «Право и справедливость». Исследование охватывает 288 основных издания «Wiadomosci», выпущенных с 1 января по 15 октября 2017 года.
Ключевые слова:
Россия, Российская Федерация, контент-анализ, Польша, Польское телевидение.
M. Piechocki, J. Wyszynski
THE IMAGE OF RUSSIA IN THE WIADOMOSCI NEWS SERVICE OF POLISH NATIONAL TELEVISION IN 2017
Abstract
The article is devoted to the analysis of the Polish medical space. Due to complex historical relations in the past, Russia often serves as a negative reference point in public debates in Poland. By historical analogy, Russia is presented as a continuation of the USSR and a threat to Polish sovereignty, which is especially noticeable in matters related to energy security, the annexation of Crimea or the Smolensk disaster.
The authors decided to study how the Russian Federation is represented in the main edition of "Wiadomosci" ("Izvestia"), the leading information service of public broadcasting. Because after the elections in 2015, there were often accusations of obvious bias of journalists of this publication to the government and the President, the authors suggest that in this rhetoric it will be possible to see a rapprochement with the rhetoric presented by the party "Law and justice". The study covers 288 major publications "Wiadomosci", issued from January 1 to October 15, 2017.
Key words:
Russia, Russian Federation, content analysis, Poland, Polish Television.
Due to historical events, Russia and Germany are frequently mentioned in a negative context in public debate in Poland. This can be seen in numerous topics, for instance the construction of the Nord Stream gas pipeline, bypassing Poland, the crash of the presidential TU 154 airplane in Smolensk on April 10, 2010, or Russian aggression against Ukraine in 2014. With reference to the first case, the statement by the then Minister of National Defense, Radostaw Sikorski may be recalled, who named this German-Russian energy investment a new Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact in 2006 [1]. This historical analogy was a clear suggestion to interpret the activities of both states in a manner assuming their hostile attitude to Poland. The crash in Smolensk resulted in anti-Russian sentiments being aroused in a part of Polish society. It was sufficient to present the events in terms of a Russian attack, or other activities leading to the crash on April 10, 2010. Allegedly, this was Russia's retaliation for the activities of Polish President Lech Kaczynski, who in 2008 thwarted Russian plans concerning Georgia [2]. References to the past were present here too: Russia is seeking to regain its imperial position, it is continuing the policy of the USSR; the name of the state has changed but its goals and tools have remained the same. The words Lech Kaczynski addressed at thousands of Georgians gathered in front of the Parliament in Tbilisi were recalled, who said that Georgia might be followed by Ukraine and then by Poland [3]. The same perspective could also be seen in the coverage of Russia's activity in the Crimea, its annexation and armed operations in Ukraine.
Wiadomosci is the main news service of Polish National Television (TVP). The investigation of how this news service presented Russia in 2017 was inspired by the authors assumption that the perspective of the ruling party, which had a critical attitude to the activities of Russia, would be reflected both in the selection of the news and its commentary. It is sufficient to recall the statements of the then Minister of National Defense, Antoni Macierewicz who repeatedly referred to the attack against the presidential airplane as an assassination. During the international conference Contemporary politics: armed conflicts and terrorism, organized at the College of Social and Media Culture, the Minister claimed that Poland was the first victim of terrorism in the ongoing conflict [4]. Leading politicians of the Law and Justice (PiS) party, including Andrzej Duda and Beata Szydto, before the 2015 elections, promised that they would reclaim the wreck of the presidential airplane held by Russia. Joachim Brudzinski said in January 2015 that it would be enough to replace the government with one that would not be controlled by President Putin [5]. This way of presenting events by
TVP results from the government's influence on appointments in the public media, which means that after every election they are colonized by politicians. Since January 2016, the office of the President of the Polish Television has been held by Jacek Kurski, former MP and MEP from PiS.
The authors of this paper resolved to limit the scope of the content of their study, while increasing the research sample. The size of sample has long been analyzed by media experts and methodologists [6; 7; 8; 9]. There is a relation between sample size and the exactness of the results, which made the authors opt for the investigation of extensive material. They expected that the topics related to Russia would be infrequent in the programs of TVP.
The authors resolved to examine how Russia was presented in the main news service on public television and seek potential similarities with the discourse of the ruling party. The following research questions were formulated for this purpose:
- What image of the Russian Federation is presented in Wiadomosci?
- Is this image the product of the political situation and is the news embedded in the context of internal developments in Poland?
- Is Russia used instrumentally?
The research was conducted using the Content Analysis System for Television (CAST, cast.info.pl), a computer-based instrument making it possible to analyze media content designed at the Faculty of Political Science and Journalism at Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan. CAST is able to receive several hundred television channels, broadcast via satellite or terrestrially, and spread them in a computer network through multicast streaming. The system is capable of storing the content of 20 channels recorded 24/7 for seven years. Using such enormous resources facilitates designing ex-post studies and extensive comparative studies. The content is recorded in the TDR Tibigen digital repository where it is automatically labeled on the basis of Electronic Program Guide (EPG) data, including, for instance, the program title, a short description, the name of the channel, broadcasting date, duration and so on. CAST offers an additional function of text transcription and recording subtitles broadcast with a given program, which facilitates searching for specific programs, including material of interest to researchers. Search queries may feature a practically unlimited number of criteria and logical operators. Another useful function of this system involves the identification of recurrent video scenes in the recorded material.
Fig. 1. CAST interface
Source: own elaboration.
CAST users can access the system through a Web browser on any computer, thereby making the coding process flexible. The CAST research form describes individual units of analysis facilitating the coding process. The list of programs researched, the categorization key and video materials are displayed in a single browser window, which makes the coding process easier. In the case of this study, CAST both coded the material and enabled cross-coding which ensured coherent results. Next, the data was exported and processed statistically.
The sample covered 288 main issues of Wiadomosci, that is all the news services broadcast from January 1 to October 15, 2017. The average audience of the Fakty news service broadcast by commercial station TVN amounted to 2,83 million viewers (a drop of 122,000) in 2017. Average viewership of Fakty on the TVN and TVN24 BiS channels amounted to 3 million viewers. Wiadomosci by TVP was watched by 2.37 million viewers (a drop of 569,000). Another news service, Wydarzenia, broadcast by the commercial station Polsat was viewed by 1.96 million people. Since Wydarzenia is broadcast on three channels - Polsat, Polsat News and Polsat News 2, the total viewership amounted to 2,12 million [10].
The unit chosen for analysis was a single news item; 293 such news items were considered relevant and thus examined. As mentioned above, sample size followed from the initial assumption made at the stage of the pilot survey that
topics related to Russia would not feature frequently in Wiadomosci. The analysis did not cover news items where Russia was mentioned only marginally (for instance a report on truck drivers who break Polish regulations and avoid paying tickets featured a Russian driver) and sports news.
The categorization key comprised both 'hard' categories, where the criteria applied do not raise any doubts (for instance, persons appearing in the material), and one category which required more detailed description, namely "the manner in which Russia is presented". The coding process enabled a choice between three responses: positive, negative and neutral. In the first case, the material concerned presented Russia in a favorable and approving manner, both in terms of the information broadcast and the commentary. News items discussing Russia in an unfavorable manner were classified as negative units of analysis. Neutral ones covered material lacking evaluating opinions, which therefore had a purely informative character.
The below graph presents the time distribution of news items, allowing us to observe several instances when Russia was covered to a larger extent:
April 10 - all 4 news items were dedicated to the anniversary of the crash of the presidential airplane in Smolensk. One expressed the disappointment that the victims had still not been commemorated by a monument at the crash site. However, local residents bringing flowers to the site featured in the coverage. Another news item presented the findings of the Smolensk parliamentary subcommission, such as the organizational chaos and intentional misinformation by the Russians. According to the sub-commission members, a lot implies that the pilots were intentionally misled as to their altitude and the beacon signal. The remaining two releases broadcast on the same day are the most interesting. One of them dealt with the political accountability for the crash, and it argued that as soon as Bolestaw Komorowski took power in Poland his political group left the investigation in the hands of the Russians. The tone of the material suggested that this was the wrong thing to do, which shows how the crash in Smolensk is used in internal politics to attack political opponents. Another release reminded viewers about the wreckage of the presidential airplane still being in Russia. In this context, the Dutch passenger airliner was mentioned which had been shot down by separatists who were backed by Russia, and how this interested the whole world in a place where the Russians had initiated a war. It was added that the Russians attempted to impede the investigation of this case.
Placing these two events next to each other might have implied that the Russians behave in the same way in the case of the 2010 crash.
May 30 - 4 news items; one concerned ex-Prime Minister Ewa Kopacz, summoned to the Prosecutor's Office in connection with the exhumations of the victims of the crash in Smolensk. Another news release dealing with the results of the exhumations reminded viewers that the Russians did not treat the bodies properly, even desecrating them. The editors decided to quote Andrzej Melak, an MP from PiS, who said that the Russians repeated the same stratagem they used with the Katyn massacre seventy years earlier. They desecrated the victims' bodies there, too, tore the epaulettes off, buried the victims in pits rather than graves, without funeral rites or due respect. The journalist commented on this, stating that the words were very strong, but justified by the scale of irregularities. Another news release covered the visit of President Andrzej Duda to Georgia, and mentioned Russia's aggressive policy and President Lech Kaczynski's role in stopping the invasion.
July 6 - 5 news items; all releases discussing Russia on that day were dedicated to the visit of US President, Donald Trump, to Poland and talked about the threat posed to the security on the continent by Russia's aggressive policy. They show how easy it is to present Russia as an enemy threatening Poland.
July 31 - 4 news items; two concerned US-Russian relations, one discussed Russia's response to a draft law on the truth about USSR activities during WWII;
August 13-4 news items; one commemorating President Lech Kaczynski's visit to Georgia, another one discussing the new office Russia offered to ex-Chancellor of Germany, Gerhard Schröder, which stressed the activities of the Russian lobby in Poland and elsewhere. Another release talked about the exhumation of the victims of the crash in Smolensk, where Russians desecrating the bodies were recalled once more.
September 17 - the 4 news items that were broadcast then formed a coherent entity. Their authors moved from the anniversary of Russia's attack on Poland on September 17, 1939 to the present situation with Russia continuing to pose a threat to European security.
PolitBook - 2018 - 4 Graph 1. Temporal distribution of relevant news items
6 5
Source: own elaboration.
Another graph demonstrates the percentage share of the different news categories. The main category concerns Russia-US relations, which was associated with the inauguration of Donald Trump's presidency. Wiadomosci presented this topic in the context of the US redefining its policy in Europe, greater US realism in relations with Russia, and the accusations of Russia interfering in the US elections. The attitude of the US President on these matters was presented as analogous to that of the Polish government. Only a slightly smaller proportion of news items concerned the crash of the presidential TU-154 airplane in Smolensk. They did not have only an anniversary and historical character, but were frequently associated with current political events in Poland. The activity of the then PO-PSL coalition government (at present in opposition), including their consent to Russia conducting the investigations, was criticized. The next two categories should be viewed jointly, because the matters of NATO and Ukraine are bound together by Russia's aggressive policy in Europe. Five percent of releases mentioning Russia were used to criticize the opposition in Poland. This is interesting when compared to the 3% of releases on Polish-Russian relations.
PolitBook - 2018 - 4 Graph 2. Percentages of different categories of the news
Source: own elaboration.
The next graph presents the tone of news releases concerning Russia. Only in 1% of them (2 news items) was Russia presented in a positive manner, whereas 67% of the news items presented it in negative light, and in 32%, we can speak about a neutral presentation.
Graph 3. Ways of presenting Russia
250 200 150 100 50 0
Positive Negative Neutral
Source: own elaboration.
The percentage of the category of material presenting Russia in negative light is of particular interest. Their majority (18%) concerned the airplane crash in Smolensk. Only a slightly smaller number (16%) dealt with NATO, relations with the US (15%), Ukraine (13%) and the European Union (9%). Practically all of them presented Russia as a threat to peace and security in Europe, Ukraine's sovereignty or the undisturbed functioning of Poland. Russia also frequently served as a negative point of reference, making it possible to insinuate certain dependencies. This can be exemplified by the material broadcast on August 2, where Russia was used to criticize the political opposition in Poland. First, it was said that General Piotr Pytel had been charged with collaborating with Russia in 2010. He permitted the Open Dialogue Foundation to trade goods for military or police purposes (the case concerned gas masks for Ukraine). Today, the Foundation is calling for a rebellion and overthrowing the government using money from abroad, as evidenced by the fact that its benefactors include the Russians. The message was further strengthened by reminding that the Foundation was granted a concession to trade military goods when the office of the Minister of Defense was in the hands of the PO (Civic Platform) party. The insinuation of the connection was based on the fact that one of the Foundation benefactors had the same name as the person associated with the arms industry in Russia, although it was never said that this was the same person. An expert was quoted in the news release, who stated that since the Foundation benefactors included persons associated with the Russians arms industry, this might have been the case of foreign services operating in the Foundation. This construction implies that the opposition in Poland is manipulated by a foreign power, thereby committing treason. This applies both to the politicians in the former government and the Open Dialogue Foundation.
PolitBook - 2018 - 4 Graph 4. Percentage of negative news items in 2017
Source: own elaboration.
The persons featuring in news releases examined are not a surprise. Vladimir Putin is mentioned as many times as all the remaining persons combined. This evidences both his prominent position in Russian politics and the strong personalization of politics presented by Polish television in Wiadomosci. News releases mentioning Russia often present Russia's president, which makes it possible to imply his personal accountability, an attitude supported by numerous PiS politicians, as is the case in the releases concerning the airplane crash in Smolensk. The viewers hear about Russia's activities related to this event and see Vladimir Putin on their TV screens, which may produce specific associations.
Table 1. Persons featuring in the news items examined
Vladimir Putin 45
Sergey Lavrow 14
Igor Sechin 4
Aleksey Navalny 3
Dmitry Medvedev 3
Sergey Shoigu 2
Joseph Stalin 2
Andrey Brovchenko 2
Petro Kozlovsky 2
Oleg Zakirov 1
Boris Nemtsov 1
Sergey Andreyev 1
Victor Miroshnikov 1
Sergey Krvivov 1
Aleksander Kadakin 1
Andrey Malanin 1
Roman Skrylnikov 1
Petr Polshikov 1
Nikolai Yezhov 1
Andrey Karlov 1
Arkady Agarkov 1
Nikolai Ivanov 1
Source: own elaboration.
The image of Russia presented by Wiadomosci TVP is convergent with the line of the ruling party. This can be seen most clearly in the news releases concerning the airplane crash in Smolensk and Russia's aggression in Ukraine. The majority of releases on NATO either implied or overtly spelled out the suggestion that Russia is the greatest threat to security in Europe, and therefore to Poland. This rhetoric displays a characteristic template of making historical analogies with the USSR, which also played the dominant role on the continent, infringing the sovereignty of smaller states.
Another characteristic stratagem employed consists in making Russia a negative point of reference, positioning Russia as an enemy, as can be seen in the implied connections between the opposition in Poland and Moscow. It is sufficient to suggest such a connection in the news item; the audience are expected to use a system of ideological references to correctly interpret this information (the opposition collaborates with Poland's enemy; therefore it may be charged with acting against the interests of the state, or even treason). In this context, it would be justified to examine an analogous period in 2015, in order to establish whether a change occurred in how Russia has been presented since the 2015 election in Poland, after the new management of public television was appointed. Finally, it should be mentioned that Wiadomosci does not cover the everyday life of 'ordinary' Russians. Therefore, Poles do not learn anything about Russia which is not related to the internal policy of Russia or its international activities.
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