CC BY
63
Noli’s semantic consumption. A comparison between the original Macbeth of Shakespeare and the translated one by Fan Noli
he will never accept this invitation// (является хеджем).
Таким образом, использование хеджинга индивидуально зависит от употребителя языка. Их основная функция заключается в выражении в тексте неуверенности, вежливости, непонятности, опосредственно-сти. Хеджи образуют связь между коммуникантами, т. е. говорящим и слушателем, писателем и читателем.
Они выполняют в пердложении некоторые функции, в процессе коммуникации в основном выражают колебание, подозрение. При этом используются слова и выражения как «I think, maybe, may, might, you know, probably» и т. д. Хеджи употребляются при чутком подходе к чувствам других лиц.
Список литературы:
1. Ручкина Е. М. Хеджирование как лингвистическое средство минимализации речевого конфликта в английском и русском языках. - Международный Научный Институт «Educatio» - IX (16), 2015, 22-27.
2. Frazer Bruce. Pragmatic Competence: The Case of Hedging. - Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2010. - Р. 16.
3. Crompton P. Hedging in academic writng.//Some theoretical Problems, USA. -1997, 284.//[Electronic resource]. - Available from: http://www.academia.edu
4. Дж. Серль. Что такое речевой акт.//Новое в зарубежной лингвистике. - Вып. 17. - М., 1986.//[Electronic resource]. - Available from: http://www.philology.ru
5. Schneider S. New Approaches to Hedging.//Parenthetical Hedged performatives. - 2011. - Ко. 11. - S. 276.// [Electronic resource]. - Available from: https://books.google.az
6. F. Saleger-Meyer. Hedges and Textual Communicative Function in Medical English Discourse., S. 154.// [Electronic resource]. - Available from: https://wenku.baidu.com
7. [Electronic resource]. - Available from: https://www.etymoline.com
Qoku Ornela,
PhD. Candidate, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of English and German languages, "Aleksandcr Xhuvani" University, Elbasan, Albania E-mail: [email protected] Erjon Mu§a,
Part-time lecturer at Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of English and German languages, "Aleksander Xhuvani" University, Elbasan, Albania
Noli’s semantic consumption. A comparison between the original Macbeth of Shakespeare and the translated one by Fan Noli
Abstract: The article will treat and analyze, “expressive vocabulary of artistic speech", as the main component, presenting thus the individual of Fan Noli’s trends, in the translation of the classical work of “Macbeth”, written by Shakespeare. It will treat semantic features of consumption, which occur due to the phonetic or semantic reasons. The article will provide that the most vulnerable consumption is that part of the semantic content of the word that makes the atmosphere affective, emotional overtones as a subjective — ssessment. It will also treat the way these tools and linguistic opportunities are used according to the talents and individuality of the interpreter. This article will help understand the style of the writer-translator by presenting us stylistic diversity of the Albanian literature. Special target of the paper are the words that have or gain stylistic value in speech. These stylistic phenomenon appear very well in Fan Noli’s fiction and translations, which are of outstanding artistic value. The main object of craftsmanship in Fan Noli is the vocabulary that relates to different nuances of artistic speech. It shows that Words over time suffer semantic consumption.
Implementation of the work is based on the resources of “Macbeth” the original work of Shakespeare and “Macbeth” translated by Fan Noli.
The method used is juxtaposing and comparing.
43
Section 1. Linguistics
Keywords: emotion, lexical, semantic consumption, translation.
Introduction
The object of this study is the expressive lexicon and its style used by the Albanian translator-writer, Fan Noli, in the translated tragedy of Macbeth of Shakespeare. The word is the main object of Fan Noli's craftsmanship that contains stylistic values, which during the speech are related to different nuances of art. This article aims to present and anlyse the consumed lexicon. We have tried to express why the phenomenon of the semantic consumption has happened. In our work we have given the original English words from Macbeth of Shakespeare [1; 3]. We have taken examples from this original book and compared them with the Albanian language version [2]. The Albanian translator uses a lot of expressive words which are very vivid full of colour but along with them there are words which due to the semantic consumption no longer exist in the Albanian languageThe article will treat mainly this phenomenon. The method used is juxtaposing and comparing.
Literary language constantly enriches today. But the elaboration and enrichment of the Albanian language is closely related to the contribution of the artistic literature with all its genres. The stylistic value of literary works can not be complete without considering the masterful work of the writers with the language means, that are used in their creative work. These linguistic means and opportunities are used according to their talents and creative individuality. This thing helps understand the style of each writer by presenting us stylistic diversity of the Albanian literature. “Compared stylistics has to do with the comparative study of the organization of different Languages. It is the lexicon of a language that makes us understand the world of a certain country. We also see some distinguishes in organizing the lexicon, which are of great interest when translating into a foreign language" [19]. This phenomenon appears clearly in Fan Noli’s creations and translations, which are of outstanding artistic value. The main object of Fan Noli’s craftsmanship is the word that contains stylistic values which are related to different nuances of art. In affective discourse, consumed words that often occur due to the phonetic or semantic reasons are not used. Semantic consumption often acts in fiction, where the expressiveness is a constant distinction of lexicon. Through consumption it is understood the expressivity achievement. Semantic consumption in fiction depends on the way of presenting the material and on the form of the communication with the reader. Noli's Lexicon is very expressive and has included sty-
listic consumption in which the word is consumed or it has changed the context. This change depends on the writer’s artistic concept with which he may replace the word. Noli is original and extremely unusual. He creates affective and very emotional atmosphere. In this way he creates strong connections: Reader-writer — translator. Semantic consumption realizes 3 other procreation. Thus the consumed word may be or not in the text, or the writer may bring another word instead of the consumed one. Noli's lexicon is distinguished by its expressiveness, emotions and figures of speech, etc. The consumed words may not be very expressive. It may happen because of the ethics that the writer uses while writing a word which he thinks has a better usage and content. Thus the words which show expressivity are words that are used as adjectives, or words that show actions and the words which express phenomenon and items as well. It is for this reason that nouns, verbs, and adjectives in their artistic speech are used in figurative meaning, because they contain emotional overtones When the word is too short it may lack expression. “The word is an independent lexical unit, which can exists lonely and out connections. The word is the lexical unit that has its own lexical and grammatical meaning which are introverted" [15, 19], as such it either disappears from the use or it takes any suffix to survive. This phenomenon appears frequently in Albanian language. Some forms of the semeantic consumption:
1. The consumtion of short words The Albanian word "Qas” is a transitive verb. 1) Its primary meaning is to bring nearer. Eg: Brought the chair near = “Qasi karrigen" = Don’t let it in = “Mos e qas brenda"; 2) The figurative meaning is admit example: The somach doesn’t accept, admit = “S'ja qas stomaku";
3) E qas'en gardhin nga muri = approached the fence to the wall. Qasu is a reflexive verb, meaning approach. Eg: come near = Qasu ketu. Friendly, sociable. adoptive child = I qasur i afrueshem, femije i qasur [20]. We have to say that this word is out of use now. Though it has a lot of meanings it is consumed. It is believed that it is due to the length of the word. It happens just the same with the word “Qatip" qatip. -i, -e, et. It is an old consumed word. Its primary meaning is to compose and write papers or documents, a scriber in an office. The documents of Sultan = Qatipi i Sulltanit. Its Albanian figurative meaning is a bad person, incompetent who passes all day with writing papers" [20]. The word lose = humb. Adding prepositions and suffixes, new words with new meanings are created. The base meaning lose, mislaid,
44
Noli’s semantic consumption. A comparison between the original Macbeth of Shakespeare and the translated one by Fan Noli
to sink, humb, humbas, humboj, i humbur; with prepositions: рёгЬишЬеш, perhumba, e perhumbur [20, 491] is used in a figurative way meaning to be obsorbed, absent — minded, absorbed etc.
Some examples taken from the tragedy of “Macbeth" translated by Fan Noli:
A desert place = Njeyrt [2, 110], i shkrete. Yrt is one syllable word. In this example it is used in the meaning of place. The word is semantically consumed and as such it is not used anymore. Other examples: no jutty, frieze, Buttress, nor coign of vantage, but this bird = S'ka asgjekund nje $ip [2, 36] ku te mos kete va, fole e djep per zogjt. In this sentence the word gip means place. The word exists in the dictionary but it is not used in all the areas of Albania. The word is consumed.
I’ the shipman’s card = kart [2, 21].
In the above sentence the word kart means map, where as today it has other meanings as paper to write on. It is not used with the primary sense as “map" any more but it is still used. The primary meaning is consumed getting new stylistic meanings. Or wear it on my sword = ja ve пё majen e nje ushte [2, 118]. The word ushte is consumed. In the Albanian literature this word does not exist.
Noise = Shamat [2, 12] e lufihs = The great noise of the arms used in the war. The word "shamat” still exists in the Albanian Language but it is consumed and it is out of use in the Albanian Literature. In this context it creates great emotion. a french hose: come in, tailor = nga nje pale tirq [2, 53] te ngushteprej frengu. Tirq means trousers. Today the word is not used. It is thought to have been consumed due to the fact that it is one syllable word. Be this the whetstone of your sword: let grief = Kjo le te behet Grih’ [20, 403] e shpates [2, 130] sate. Grih is not used nowadays. Its meaning is the sharpness of the sword. It is again thought that the existing word was one syllable thus it is out of use today, it is consumed. But when read it sounds wonderful and creates great emotion. But not a niggard ofyour speech = Mos ji avar [2, 126] nefjalet. The meaning of avar is: don’t be thrifty in words. The word sounds wonderful but it is consumed completely. Though all things foul would wear the brows of grace = dhe hir’ i rreme si dhe hir’ [2, 117] i thjeshte me deshire te madhe, "Hir” is an extraordinary emotional word. With the passing of time it is consumed and as such it is not found today. These were some examples taken from the translated work of Noli. The fact of not having been used for a long time have made these words be consumed semantically, together with the consumption of the atmosphere of the affective coloration expressions. “More vulnerable of
the semantic consumption is that part of speech content which has the affective atmosphere as well as the emotional connotations and subjective -assessment, etc. The expressive value of the words weakens because of the usage. The words that express emotion, spiritual reaction, subjective assessments, even those which are the strongest and the most expressive ones lose their force when they are repeated too often” [21,10].
From our study of the above examples we come to the conclusion that small one syllable words consume their semantic content but with the help of prepositions and suffixes some of them gain new stilystic meanings that make the atmosphere affective and emotional.
2. Phonetic phenomenon
In the following examples it is thought that phonetic phenomenon has happened. eg:
Sergeant = reshtari [2, 14]. We think that from reshtari the word has suffered phonetic changes and today it is used ushtar, its homophone.
Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair = Pse kor e saj e tmerrte mi ngre qimet? [2, 26]. Here the word "kor" means victory. The idea expressed here is the image of her victory. Her success and achievements of her aim. It does not exist now. The word has suffered phonetic changes and today it has developed into korrje, which means to win a victory or to reap the harvest. We must stress that the original word was kor, one syllable word and as such it is semantically expanded.
Maw and gulf = lukth [2, 99] zhapie. Lugth means an organ of the body, the stomach. As noted the word lukth is gone due to its homophony. It is seen that homophony has a powerful influence.
But this bird = shpese [2, 36]. The used word has phonetically evolved in the language. It is because of this that the first word is consumed leaving room for its homophony, which is the Albanian word shpend. a stool = kareklle [2, 88]. It means chair. In Albanian language karrike. In some areas ofAlbania, in Korca the word Karrike still exists. But the area ofElbasan doesn’t use and does not know this word.
In our study we noticed that the above mentioned example has happened because of phonetic semantic consumption. According to Xhevat Lloshi when two words are homonyms or homophones, one of these is consumed [22]. Semantic consumption is treated in foreign literature as well. From the above examples with semantic consumption it is understood the consumption of the meaning of the given word, its non-utilisation with the primary meaning, or its usage with a new idea.
3. Partial contextual synonymy
Thou art too like the spirit of Banquo (IV, 128) = I
45
Section 1. Linguistics
ngjan Fantazmes Bankos teper [2, 106]. In this sentence the word Fantazmes in the meaning of ghost is used with a figurative meaning. As two spent swimmers, that do cling together [3] (I scene 2, 10) = Si dy notes qe pran’ e pram $ajne ujen [2, 13]. In this example the consumed word is $ajne in the meaning of split. Today this word is not used with water. In Albanian language it does not have sense if used in that way. The expression used in this situation by Noli creates much emotion and is very expressive.
A limbeck only: when in swinish sleep. Their drenched natures lie as in a death, [3] (I. scene 7, 67) = Ne pellg tegjumit, si ne varr te vdekjes [2, 41].
Today the Albanian word pellg with the above meaning is consumed. It is no more used with the same literary meaning. It must be stressed that the words used by Noli express the action or state in a special strength as in the examples $ajne ujen, pran’ e pram, pellg te gjumit, or re-sembeles the ghost of Banko =fantazmes. The expressive force is very great because the water can’t be split = $ajne. It is its figurative usage that makes the word very expressive. In some cases they may be subtituted with other words as sound sleep = pellg te gjumit, but if used in this way the word would lose its expressivity. Among the underlined words in the quoted examples there is partial synonymy. When studying the above words Noli has used partial contextual synonymy.
4. Contextual synonymy
In the following examples:
You secret, black, and midnight hags! = lubira faqemv-rojtur te nates [2, 101] the yellow leaf=fletfishkur [2, 141]. The difference between them has to do not only with their expressive force but with their meaning as well. The words used by the translator-writer express more emphasized evident state. These familiar words undergo great semantic consumption. They provide the feature in unusual proportions. In the semantic of these words highlights the idea of crossing a limit, and therefore used as a word they surpass the expressivity, one wants to describe. For example in the above sentence, the yellow leaf=fletfishkur [2, 141] the translation means a weak person, ill, but adding the word person the context has great lexical value. It is consumed the real concept of it is withered leaf=fletfishkur and it is used for a very old, weak person. We Notice that Noli is a very great user of these adjectives, presenting us extremely dramatic scenes. Further on Noli uses the adjective rrobegerra which means with torn clothes. So wither’d and so wild in their attire = Q’jane keto te fishkura dhe rrobegerra [2,20].
A group ofwords which in their literal meaning mark things in prominent feature, provide maximum levels in a very impressive way. This group includes the above words
rrobeflerra. In the same context are thefollowing words used: vrerin, zhubra, etc. [2, 33].
Her skinny lips = zhubra [2, 20]. This means her wrinkled lips. Lexicon used by Noli makes one think that the person whom he speaks about is old, weak, inactive and lack-luster.
You murdering ministers = gjakes [2, 33] qe vrisni, Here the Albanian word gjakes has to do with people involved in murder, bloodshed. The meaning is very terrible and gruesome. It brings strong emotional feelings. But today the word is exhausted, consumed. Its usage can probably be found in northern Albania, where canon = revenge still operates.
With Tarquin’s ravishing strides = si Tarkimi i hazdi-sur [2, 47].
Commends the ingredients of our poison’d chalice = Na zgjat m buze vrerin qe gatitem [2, 38] vete or in the examples: The grave of death.
When studying and analising Noli’s lexicon we come to the conclusion that the above words are contextual synonymies because we understand them only through synonyms. Today they are consumed.
5. Adding suffixesor pprefixes
Part of the means used by Noli is the use of adverbs, which are already known, described and recommended by the normative grammar of the Albanian language. The number of such means can be added to others. They are described in Grammar [23] other examples:
Horribly, strangely = tmerresisht, $uditerisht.
I’ll be myself the harbinger and make joyful = Na falni plot'erisht (F. N. M. Sh. Р. 30) So humbly take my leave = Lyp lejen praperunjerisht = perunjerisht [2, 30].
We notice that suffix -risht is added to these two recent examples to form adverbs. Noli occasionally uses these words to express both a high degree of character and different reactions, as the word plot'e = full. Likewise, it is given us by Noli in the following example:
A strange infirmity =semundje te $udiflme [2, 89]. In an original way in order to express intensity features expressed by adjectives, the writer uses constructions in which the word serves as an element. The word ^udi^ime is consumed.
Mind she has mated, and amazed my sight = me kalli tmerr, habitje dhe drithtire [2, 136].
When analyzing we think that the word drithtire brings very strong emotions. This word expresses exaggerated and exciting features but it is consumed. The verb kalli is semantically consumed too. The above mentioned selected lexicon means convey to the readers everything: ideas, emotions and subjective assessments. The high de-
46
Noli’s semantic consumption. A comparison between the original Macbeth of Shakespeare and the translated one by Fan Noli
gree of a feature is given by using expressions of two or more words marking the feature itself or of the whole sentence. Words denoting qualified features have in their nature the expressiveness. Whereas qualifying and characterizing words the speaker expresses and valuates his own attitudes. Used in this way it happens that these words consume their expressiveness. It is because of this that these words are substituted with other expressive words. Together with this idea they express emotions which are caused due to their increased appearance of something, as it is mentioned above: fudi. Semundje te fudifime, etc.
Her chappy finger laying = duar te krasitura [2, 20] te rraskapitura, te lodhura.
Our study results that the Albanian word kra-sit = prune is stylistically discolored because of the long use. Its strength and expressive coloring of affective and semantic rule is weakened. So its semantic concept is exhausted, consumed and to convey the notion expressed by the lexicon, the writer chooses other expressive and influential words to replace the ones with semantic consumption. In today’s Albanian language the wordgroup duar te krasitura is consumed, thus it doesn’t have sense. Words that express actions or state contain more meaningful expressivity. They have common broadcast skills, in affective discourse. They are removed and replaced by the impressively, expressive synonyms. This is evident in the examples below:
We have observed that suffix -risht give another meaning to the word. It gives strong emotions.
6. Semantic consumption because ofethical reasons
Nor heaven peep through the blanket of the dark = Kurtinen ngjyrepus e te bertase [2, 34].
False face must hide what the false heart doth know = Se faqe rreme sheh ne zem'er fdjejme [2, 42].
When studying the distinction of the above words we have noticed that today it is used the word lie or false instead of rreme a view that is different from what it is in reality. It is just the same with the Albanian word faq which in this context means face. We think thatsaid that words denoting objects and phenomena provide a remarkable expressivity. In the discourse are used semantic units with large volume, which appear where discourse threatens to be discoloured from continuing use of the units which are deleted and contextually consumed. eg:
The moon is down; I have not heard the clock = Ka perenduar hena, po s’d'egjova sahatin te trokase [2, 43]. The word sahati is not used any more. It means clock. Hear not my steps, which way they walk, for fear, Thy very stones prate of my whereabout = Mos i deg-
jo ku me baresin k'emb'et, Se mos b'ertasin guret ku po vete [2, 47].
It is understood that the stones do not speak = b'ertasin and the feet slip go. Baresin means that slip. It is Noli's skill to use these words so beautifully and full of emotions.
This is a sorry sight = Kjopamje ma vretsyrin [2, 49].
The Albanian word Vret = kills is more prominent than it hurts the eye.
From the study we have noticed that Noli acts very well with the lexicon. Not only do expressive words suffer semantic consumption but a group of them oftenly used in discourse suffer semantic consumption as well. Such are the Albanian words: mos, nuk. So far as their usage is concerned, these words have lost something dealing with the meaning. Being used very much these words have lost their primary meaning. Eg: negation is made by the word mos = not which are completed with any other word to take the final appearance of a genuine denial of undoubted. The word mos may not be repeated, it can be reinforced by other negative meaningful words as jo, kurre, asnjehere = not, never. Noli, instead of the negative of jo and "nuk” we have observed that he often uses the word mos = don't or any other means. Negation formulated in this way is cut, and categorical one. eg:
Me thought I heard a voice cry “Sleep no more!"=Mos fli me! [2, 50].
Shall sleep no more; Macbeth shall sleep no more = Sfle me, Makbethi nuke fle dot me! [2, 51].
As far as the affirmation is concerned, it is made with the word po = yes, but it is often let aside and Noli uses other words and phrases, such as: Amen to express admission; affirmation.
One cried “God bless us!" and “Amen" the other = Nje tha "Na ruajt Zoti”; dhe tjetri tha "Amen” [2, 50].
Amen is a prayer which in Albanian language means “yes”, or God protects you. So Noli uses the word “Amen”very often. Affirmative expressive word “Amen” lies in its volume of emotional meaning that is higher than the word yes. Often in indirect speech, where the Albanian word must be said = tha Noli uses the Albanian word thirri meaning called eg:
Me thought I heard a voice cry “Sleep no more!”=M’u duk sikur nje ze me thirri.
Macbeth does murder sleep’, the innocent sleep = “Mos fli me!Makbethi vraugjumin!” [2, 50].
A voice cried = said, he used thirri instead of said.
There’s one did laugh in’s sleep, and one cried “Murder!” = Nje qeshi nenderr dhe nje thirri: “vrasje!" [2, 49]. With the word one laughed Noli wants to express that a
47
Section 1. Linguistics
person laughed and cried = one person said = again he used thirri not said.
The death ofeach day’s life, sore labour’s bath = Vdekjen e jet'ess'eperditeshme, Banjen epanes trupkapitese [2, 50].
The tiring work which had exhausted and had worn out so much Macbeth was exhausting = trupkapitese. This word brings a lot of emotions but it isn’t used today. Here it is discussed about Macbeth who after the macabre act (killing the king) had lost his calmness, he didn’t sleep any more.
I am too savage = me i pashpirtme [2, 12].
Noli’s chosen word savage i pashpirtme is milder and it doesn’t have emotional force that the word savage gives.
The merciless Macdonwald-Worthy to be a rebel, for to that = pameshirti Makdonald-rebel [2, 14].
And fix’d his head upon our battlements = shthuri nofullat [2, 14].
The albanian words shthuri nofullat mean = killed, damaged. Untill he damaged = shthuri the rebel’s jaws and chest. The emotion that the word describes is very scary, trembling and spooky which means that McDonald is criminal, bloody and as such doesn’t feel pity. This word is
consumed completely and as such it is not used any more. It has got other meanings. It is because of this that we say that the underlined words are very delicate when used.
In the above examples semantic consumption occurs for ethical reasons so that the word containing heavy and unpleasant notions can be replaced with other words which express these concepts in a more softer way e. g.
Sometimes Noli uses soften lexicon not very strong one. However, this soft lexicon is consumed. To avoid lexical semantic consumption the writer often uses influencing expressive means.
Conclusion
As a conclusion we have to say that semantic consumption happens because of being short words, phonetic consumption, contextual synonymy, partial synonymy, added prefixes or suffixes orbecause of ethical reasons. We have to emphasise that these consumed semantic expressions are in the function of a better presentation, sensitive and touching to the reader shown not only through literary materials but through communication as well. Our study will continue inorder to find other forms of semantic consumption in Fan Noli's translations and his own creation.
References:
1. Hutchins Robert Maynard. Great Books of the Western World. - 1950.
2. Fan Noli. Makbethi i Shekspirit. - Tiran^ 1943.
3. Shakespeare. (Great Books Of The Western World). - volume 2. - 1952.
4. Xhuvani A. Origjina dhe formimi i ndajfoljeve м shqip.//Buletini i institutit tё Shkencёs. - III, 2194.
5. Kostallari A. Kompozitat ekzocentrike tё shqipes si tema fjateformuese, “Studime mbi leksikun dhe formimin e fjateve”. - 1, 1972.
6. Kostallari A. Mbi disa ve$ori tё fjates sё pёrbёrё gjuhёn shqipe. - 1, 1972.
7. Kostallari A. N rrugёn e hartimit tё fjalorit normativ tё shqipes, “Studime mbi leksikun”. - II, 1972.
8. Kostallari A.-XH. Lloshi, Mbi gjuhёn e shtypit tё sotёm Norma Letrare & Kultura, 1991.
9. Dhrima A. Fan Stilian Noli Tribun i fjates shqipe, “Gjuha Jo^”. - 1987, 2.
10. £abej E. Studime gjuhёsore, III. - Prishti^, 1977.
11. Hadaj G. Shembuj analize Tekstit, “Revista Pedagogjike”, 1984.
12. Hyrje м gjuhёsi (tekst), 1976.
13. Thomai J. Leksikologjia e gjuhёs shqipe. - 1984, 2006.
14. Celiku M. Disa togje foljore gjuhёn e sotme.//Buletini I USHT, 1963.
15. Mehmet Celiku Sintakse e Ghuhes Shqipe (perberesit Sintaksore). - Tirane, 2012.
16. Varfi N. Leksikologjia e gjuhёs frenge. - Tira^, 2006.
17. Lloshi Xh. Njohuri pёr stilistikёn e gjuhёs shqipe. - 1987.
18. [Electronic resource]. - Available from: http://www.shakespeare-online.com/sources/macbethsources.html
19. Xhevat Lloshi. Stilistika e gjuhes Shqipe dhe Pragmatika. - Albas, 2005. - Р. 13.
20. Fjalor I Shqipes Sё Sotme. - Tira^ Toena, 2002. - F. 1066.
21. Emine Sadiku Vezhgime mbi leksikun shprehes ne prozen e Ismail Kadarese. - Tirane, 1998. - F. 10.
22. Xhevat Lloshi. Rreth disa shaqjeve te ndikimit te homonimise ne gjuhen shqipe, Studime mbi leksikun e mbi formimin e fjaleve ne gjuhen shqipe. - Tirane, 1972. - F. 228.
23. Phonetics and Grammar of Modern Albanian Literary Language. - Tirana, 1976.
48
