CC BY
25
Copyright © 2021 by Academic Publishing House Researcher s.r.o.
" * I
Published in the Slovak Republic Media Education (Mediaobrazovanie) Has been issued since 2005 ISSN 1994-4160 E-ISSN 2729-8132 2021. 17(2): 177-188
DOI: 10.13187/me.2021.2.177 www.ejournal53.com
News Media Use and Civic Engagement: The Mediating Role of Social Capital and Civic Accountability
Ibrar Ahmad a, Muniba Fatima a, Farahat Ali a > *
a University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
Abstract
This study aims to explore the relationship between news media use and civic engagement. This study also investigates the mediating role of social capital and civic accountability in the relationship between news media use and civic engagement. The theoretical framework of this study is based on social learning theory. By employing a cross-sectional survey design, this study has collected online data from 350 respondents from four universities located in Lahore. To empirically test hypotheses, Partial Least Square based Structural Equation Modeling technique has been used. The results of this study reveal that news media use is positively associated with civic engagement. News media use has a significant relationship with social capital and civic accountability. This study has also found a positive relationship between social capital and civic engagement. Similarly, the relationship between civic accountability and civic engagement also remains significant. The results of the indirect effects indicate that social capital and civic accountability are significant mediators in the relationship between news media use and civic engagement.
Keywords: news media, civic engagement, social capital, civic accountability.
1. Introduction
Media is considered the eyes and ears of a society that plays a positive role by providing information concerning important events happening in society (Florini, 2012; Shah et al., 2005). People rely on different mediums to get the latest information regarding newsworthy events. This information strengthens the social fabric and has deep effects on the masses. In short, media is an important social agent of socialization that plays a vital role in increasing civic engagement (Entman, 2005; Hooghe, 2002; Neuman et al., 2011; Prior, 2003; Xenos et al., 2014). Social media also play a significant role in this regard. It can be used to promote civic engagement (Kenna, Hensley, 2019).
It is natural for a human being to take a keen interest in social events as man is a social animal who wants to bring a positive change in society improving the existing situation. An individual keeps himself abreast of the latest happenings and contributes to civic activities. Civic engagement is a broader term. It is not limited to political participation but also includes involvement in community affairs such as volunteer community activities (Gil de Zuniga et al., 2012). The relationship between media and civic engagement is evident from previous studies (Livingstone, Markham, 2008; Warren et al., 2014). It is usually understood that ne,ws media disseminate information that leads the public towards community involvement (Verba et al., 1995). It is also a fact that an individual's attitude sometimes decreases the level of civic engagement (Uslaner, 1998).
* Corresponding author
E-mail addresses: Farahatali08@gmail.com (F. Ali)
Media promote social capital that leads towards civic participation. Social capital is further divided into two categories i.e. sense of mutuality and social trust. Media usage is the main source to create formal and informal relations within society and creates a sense of mutuality and promote values of social trust. Mutuality means sharing feelings and actions among social circles and social trust helps in establishing and strengthening relations. Social capital formulates a strong civil society by facilitating associative behavior and empowering individuals (Verba et al., 1995). The way of interacting with companies is modified, with the advent of new media. The gatekeeping mechanism and dissemination of the information have changed due to the advancement of new media (Fieseler, Fleck, 2013). Social capital is one of the most important elements that mediate the relationship between media use and civic engagement. Social capital facilitates associative behavior and enhances the level of civic engagement (Kim, 2007). Social trust converts 'They' into 'We', create an atmosphere of brotherhood, unite people, and establish a prosperous society (Uslaner, 2018).
Several studies have explored the relationship between news media use and civic engagement (Gil de Zuniga et al., 2012; Livingstone, Markham, 2008; Thorson, Edgerly, 2017). Previous scholarly studies have also investigated the mediating role of social capital in the effects of news media use on civic engagement (Cattell, 2001; Collins, Guidry, 2018; Kim, 2007). The mediating role of civic accountability has not been explored yet. This study bridges this gap exploring the mediating role of civic accountability in the relationship between news media and engagement. This study identifies the effects of news media on civic engagement focusing on societal issues that is the requirement of the time.
This study aims to explore the relationship between news media use and civic engagement by investigating the mediating role of social capital and civic accountability. It will make a distinct contribution to the existing literature by exploring the effects of news media on civic engagement in the context of Pakistan. Above all, this study will explore the mediating role of a new construct civic accountability between news media use and engagement.
News Media Use and Civic Engagement. Q.K. Mahmood and M. Saud (Mahmood, Saud, 2019) explored the relationship between Facebook use and civic engagement among a sample of 1245 respondents. The results indicated a significant relationship between Facebook use and civic activities of youth. Moreover, age and qualification were found to be the significant predictors of civic participation. This study indicated a positive connection between new media and engagement.
S. Zubairand and S.A. Halim (Zubair, Halim, 2017) examined the effects of social networking sites among 195 youngsters of Pakistan and Egypt. This study found no relationship between the new media use and civic contribution of youth. This study contradicts the findings of previous research indicating no significant association between new media and engagement. D.H. Choi and D.H. Shin (Choi, Shin, 2016) explored the relationship between social media use and engagement through investigating the moderating role of social capital. The results showed that new media and social capital enhance civic engagement. Moreover, an individual's level of social capital was found a major reason with reference to the effects of social media on civic engagement.
A critical review of previous studies identified a strong connection between news media use and civic engagement (Gil de Zuniga et al., 2012; Hoffman, Thomson, 2009; Kim, 2007; Livingstone, Markham, 2008; Neill, 2009; Pasek et al., 2006; Thorson, Edgerly, 2017; Xenos, Moy, 2007).
News Media and Social Capital. A.M. Warren, A. Sulaiman, and N.I. Jaafar (Warren et al., 2014) studied the effects of new media in fostering online civic engagement as well as establishing mutual and institutional trust. The empirical analysis of the data showed that new media use was positively related to the mutual trust which in result enhanced trust in state institutions. Moreover, mutual incentives motivated and encouraged citizens to participate in online civic activities through developing their interest. M.D. Bonner (Bonner, 2009) in his study found that media play a vital role in promoting social accountability while providing platforms for public discussion and mutual action for the betterment of society. This study explored the influence of media in creating social accountability concerning police violence through newspaper coverage.
J. Son and N. Lin (Son, Lin, 2008) studied the relationship between social capital and civic action using secondary data of a national survey. The results revealed that social capital was a significant predictor of civic action. This study proved that organizational networks played a central role in enhancing contribution to civic affairs.
Empirical literature found that media use for entertainment has a negative association with social capital. D.V. Shah, Nojin Kwak, and R.L. Holbert (Shah et al., 2001) in his study found a negative relationship between the entertainment use of the internet and social capital. Likewise,
J. Cho, H. Rojas, and D.V. Shah (Cho et al., 2003) also found the same results in their study and found the internet one of the major factors for having adverse civic consequences. The result of these two studies mentioned above indicated a negative relationship between entertainment use of media and engagement.
Relationship between Social Capital and Civic Engagement. R.A. Jalalani and N. Shah (Jalalani, Shah, 2019) examined the relationship between social capital and civic engagement by collecting data from university students. The results illustrated that bonding social capital and trust had a positive and direct influence on civic engagement. This study revealed a positive relationship between social capital and engagement in the context of Pakistan.
Another study identified the relationship between social capital and civic behavior among a sample of 420 respondents. The results indicated a positive and direct relationship between a high level of social capital and civic behavior. Besides, this study also observed partial mediating effects of social capital. The overall results of this study proved that news media was significantly related to engagement through social capital (Liu et al., 2014). On the other hand, a study found no relationship between media use and civic engagement. This study examined the effects of news media and social capital on engagement by collecting data through a telephonic survey. The results indicated that social capital enhances engagement. News media does not lead to participation. This study found a positive relationship between social capital and civic contribution, but this relationship was nonsignificant when it came to news media (Zhang, Chia, 2006).
R.D. Putnam (Putnam, 2000) argued that those individuals who have a large social network are more likely to contribute to civic activities. Social trust removes barriers and opens new avenues for civic engagement. J. Son and N. Lin (Son, Lin, 2008) also agreed with this point of view arguing that social capital increases engagement in civic activities. Social trust, mutuality and the feeling of brotherhood removes distances and bring different people on same page. As a result, people work for the welfare of community going beyond their personal interests.
Mediating Role of Social Capital. Z.J. Zhong (Zhong, 2014) analyzed the role of social networking sites in bridging social capital and enhancing involvement in civic affairs. This study collected data from 654 respondents. It was inferred from the results that social networking sites bridge and bond social capital that in turn have a positive influence on civic involvement. This study found the significant mediating effects of social capital between new media and engagement. Similarly, another study found the mediating effects of social capital on civic engagement and collective efficacy (Collins et al., 2014). Social capital is a potential mediating variable between the relationship of news media and engagement.
A critical review of previous literature indicated that news media has positive effects on civic engagement. Besides, social capital is also a significant mediator between news media and engagement. However, no study investigated the mediating role of civic accountability which has been measured in this study. This study fills this research gap exploring the mediating effects of civic accountability between news media and civic engagement.
Social Learning Theory. Social learning theory was proposed by Albert Bandura in the 1960s in the result of the bobo doll experiment. Bandura experimented on a doll in the presence of children. The doll was physically harmed, and its effects were observed on children. Bandura observed that children imitated acts of their elders and kicked and punched the bobo doll (Bandura, Walters, 1977). Through this experiment, he concluded that our behaviors are formulated because of observation (Mihalic, Elliott, 1997). Before the formation of this theory, it was assumed that human behaviors take place in the result of reinforcement or conditioning, but this assumption was changed with this experiment (Maisto et al., 1999). Bandura proved that the process of learning take place through imitation, retention, reproduction, and motivation. In this regard, the process of reenactment or modeling play a crucial role.
This theory is related to this study as individuals learn a lot of things through imitation. The process of observation and imitation lead towards civic engagement. People contribute to community affairs by getting inspiration and observing behavior of other people through news media. Besides, the process of learning through mass media carries the ability to build social capital by formulating the sense of mutuality and social trust as well as promoting civic accountability in society. Besides, R.D. Putnam (Putnam, 1995) argued that television is one of the major factors for declining social capital and civic contribution in the USA because it portrays mediated reality contrary to social facts.
A lot of previous studies have used social learning theory to elucidate the concept and process of social work, socialization, and engagement (Akers, 1995; Campbell, 1979; Jacklin, Reynolds, 1993; Pratt et al., 2010). Besides, sociologists have extensively used this theory to explain deviant behavior and human reinforcement (Brauer, Tittle, 2012; Durkin et al., 2005; Ford, 2008).
Fig. 1. Proposed Conceptual Model
Following are the main objectives and hypotheses of this study:
• To explore the relationship between news media use and civic engagement.
• To check the relationship between news media use and social capital.
• To examine the relationship between news media use and civic accountability.
• To identify the relationship between social capital and civic engagement.
• To discover the relationship between civic accountability and civic engagement.
• To investigate the mediating role of social capital in the relationship between news media use and civic engagement.
• To explore the mediating role of civic accountability in the relationship between news media use and civic engagement.
H1: News media use has significant relationship with civic engagement.
H2: News media use has significant relationship with social capital.
H3: News media use has significant relationship with civic accountability.
H4: Social capital is positively associated with civic engagement.
H5: Civic accountability is positively associated with civic engagement.
H6: The relationship between news media use and civic engagement is mediated by social capital.
H7: The relationship between news media use and civic engagement is mediated by civic accountability.
2. Material and methods
Participants and Sampling. This study is based on quantitative methodology. A cross-sectional survey design was employed to complete this research. Data was collected through an online questionnaire due to pandemic situations around the globe and the closing of educational institutions. The questionnaire carried 39 close-ended items. All items were directly related to the research topic.
University students, both males, and females, aged 18 to 33, were participants of this study. Through employing a purposive sampling technique, data was collected from 350 students from three universities of Lahore. The purposive sampling technique allows a researcher to collect data from those respondents who have certain characteristics that have interest for researcher (Neuman, 2007).
Demographic Variable. This study asked participants about their gender, locale, age, sect, qualification, and household income.
News Media Use. News media use scale was adopted from a previous study (Gil de Zuniga et al., 2012). Participants were asked how much they had read, seen, or listened to different news mediums to get information about events, public issues, and politics. Seven news mediums were mentioned in response: newspaper, magazine, radio, television, social networking sites, online newspaper, and internet. Their response was evaluated on a five-point scale from never (1) to very
often (5). Cronbach's Alpha for the measure was (a = .65, M = 22.71, SD = 4.20, Minimum = 7, Maximum = 35).
Social Capital. The social capital scale was adopted from the study of S.H. Kim (Kim, 2007). This scale consists of two sub-scales: informal socializing and interpersonal trust. Informal socializing subscale consists of six items such as "I participate in alumni activities" (Cronbach's Alpha a = .70, M = 18.62, SD = 3.78). Interpersonal trust sub-scale contains two items such as "Most people can be trusted" (Cronbach's Alpha a = .72, M = 26.58, SD = 4.66, Minimum = 12, Maximum = 40).
Civic Accountability. Civic accountability was assessed on a five-point Likert scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5) by adapting a scale from an existing study (Flanagan et al., 2007). It included four items such as "If I love Pakistan, I should notice its problems and work to correct them" (Cronbach's Alpha a = .70, M =16.65, SD = 2.62, Minimum = 4, Maximum = 20).
Civic Engagement. This study measured civic engagement by adopting the civic engagement scale developed by A. Doolittle and A.C. Faul (Doolittle, Faul, 2013). This scale consists of two subscales: civic attitude and civic behavior.
Civic Attitude Subscale. Civic engagement attitude subscale was evaluated on a five-point Likert scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). It carries eight items such as "I feel responsible for my community" (Cronbach's Alpha a = .88, M = 32.68, SD = 4.77, Minimum = 14, Maximum = 70).
Civic Behavior Subscale. Civic behavior subscale was assessed on a five-point Likert scale from never (1) to very often (5). It included six items such as "I am involved in a structured volunteer position in the community" (Cronbach's Alpha a = .84, M =20.61, SD =4.68, Minimum = 14, Maximum = 70). It is pertinent to mention here that the reliability value reported above all constructs was checked on a sample of 50 respondents. Besides, the researcher has also assessed composite reliability and AVE after data collection. Their results have been presented in the result section.
Data Collection. Data was collected from university students in April 2020. An online questionnaire was prepared using Google form. The researcher shared the survey URL via email and social networking sites. In the end, the researcher received 350 responses. Data was collected in November and December 2020.
Data Analysis. The researchers used the Smart PLS 3.2.9 to analyze data. PLS-SEM is a popular approach used to test measurement and structural models. Through this approach, we can analyze data and produce consistent results even with smaller sample size. It has the highest statistical power to generate accurate results. First, the researcher converted the SPSS file into a CSV file. A new project was created in Smart PLS and CSV data file was imported. A consistent PLS Algorithm was run through which construct reliability, validity, AVE, discriminant validity was reported. To empirically test hypotheses, the researcher performed bootstrapping on the 2000 bootstrap sample. Through this approach, the researcher evaluated both measurement and structural models. The results have been presented in the next chapter.
3. Discussion
This study examines the association between news media use and civic engagement. Moreover, this study also investigates the mediating role of social capital and civic accountability. The theoretical framework of this study is grounded in cultivation and social learning theory. A cross-sectional survey design was applied to obtain data from 350 respondents through an online questionnaire created through Google form. PLS-SEM approach is used to empirically test hypotheses. In this chapter, the researcher explains the results considering previous literature. The analysis revealed the following results.
The relationship between news media and engagement is significant. The results have supported the abovementioned hypothesis indicating a positive association between news media use and engagement. These results are consistent with previous studies (Gil de Zuniga et al., 2012; Hoffman, Thomson, 2009; Livingstone, Markham, 2008; Mahmood, Saud, 2019; Martens, Hobbs 2015; Mushtaq, Baig 2015; Pasek et al., 2006; Rafique et al., 2016; Thorson, Edgerly, 2017; Thorson et al., 2020; Xenos, Moy, 2007: Zubair, Halim 2017). These studies also proved that news media has positive effects on civic engagement.
The findings of the study have shown a positive relationship between news media and social capital. This shows that news media has direct impacts on social capital. These findings have not only supported the hypothesis 2 but also in line with the previous studies findings (Ohme, 2020;
Ida, Saud, 2020; Lu, Lee, 2021; Uslaner, 1998), who in their study also found news media as a significant predictor of social capital. In this regard, the present study testifies the results of previous literature.
The results of this study support the relationship between news media use and civic accountability. Thus hypothesis 3 is supported. It reveals that news media use lead an individual towards civic accountability. This result is consistent with the researcher's expectations. News media create a sense of responsibility and encourage individuals to work for the betterment of society.
Hypothesis 4 is supported as the relationship between social capital and civic engagement is significant. Consistent with previous studies (Jalalani, Shah 2019; Son, Lin, 2008; Zhang, Chia, 2006) social capital has direct and positive effects on civic engagement. The association between civic accountability and civic engagement is significant. Hypothesis 5 is supported that shows civic accountability has positive impacts on civic engagement. These results support the findings of M.D. Bonner (Bonner, 2009) that also indicates a positive association between civic accountability and engagement.
It was predicted that social capital mediates the relationship between news media use and civic engagement. The findings support the proposed relationship. Hypothesis 6 is supported. It indicates that social capital is a significant mediator in the relationship between news media use and civic engagement. These results are similar to previous studies findings (Collinsm, Guidry, 2018; Kim, 2007; Tucker et al., 2021; Zhong, 2014). The findings of these previous studies also showed that social capital is a significant mediator. This study testifies the results of previous studies.
Civic accountability is hypothesized to mediate the relationship between news media use and engagement. The results support hypothesis 7. As is evident from the results, the relationship between news media use and engagement is mediated by civic accountability. For the very first time, this study investigates the mediating role of civic accountability. The empirical literature has not found the mediating role of civic accountability. This study verifies the mediating effects of civic accountability between news media use and civic engagement. Like civic accountability, future investigations should find new variables that mediate the relationship between media and engagement.
Theoretical Implications. Social learning theory has provided a theoretical framework for this study. The overall results of present study support the propositions of social learning theory. This study found that media play a key role in encouraging engagement among masses. People learn from media and work for the betterment of society. This theory is also of the view that people learn through the procedure of modeling and imitation. Social learning theory seems compatible with the results of this study.
Limitations of the Study. This study limits generalization due to employing the convenience sampling technique. Its results cannot be generalized to all youngsters in Pakistan. Besides, a cross-sectional survey design limits the ability of causality.
Delimitations of the Study. This study measured news media use as an independent variable, civic engagement as a dependent variable, social capital, and civic accountability as mediating mechanism. Data was collected from university students aged 18 to 33 by using a cross-sectional research design.
Implications of the Study. The present study makes a distinct contribution to the existing literature by exploring the mediating role of civic accountability between news media and civic engagement. Besides, its results can be helpful for social workers who intend to bring constructive change in society. They can design their strategy considering the results of this study.
Future Research. Future investigations must include people other than students in their sample so that the extent of this study could be broadened. In addition, future studies should collect offline data through a self-administered questionnaire or in-depth interviews. Future studies need to further investigate the proposed relationships within the framework of the O-S-R-O-R model. Future researchers can explore the role of other mediating mechanisms such as interpersonal communication, civic knowledge, civic efficacy, and so on. In future studies, researchers should try to generalize results having a true representative sample.
4. Results
This part of the study deals with the results of this study. The researchers have analysed the data by using Smart PLS 3.2.9. In this study, construct reliability, discriminant validity, direct and indirect effects of different variables have been described in detail. Above all, this part throws light
on the results of the hypotheses. Table 1 shows the frequency and percentage of demographic characteristics. The sample of this study included 187 (53.4 %) male and 163 (46.6 %) females. 94 (26.9 %) respondents were living in rural areas while 256 (73.1 %) in urban areas. When it came to age categories, 100 (28.6 %) respondents' age was between 18-22, 166 (47.4%) were 23-28, 52 (14.9 %) were 29-33, 32 (9.1 %) respondents were more than 33 years old. The majority of the respondents 243 (69.4 %) belonged to Ahle-Sunat sect, 25 (7.1 %) Ahle-Hadith, 19 (5.4 %) Ahle-Tasih, and 63 (18 %) having their association with other sects. 32 (9.1 %) respondents had 12 years of education, 107 (30.6%) had 14 years of education, 122 (34.9 %) had 16 years of education,
71 (20.3 %) had 18 years of education and only 18 (5.1 %) were PhDs. Moreover, 119 (34 %) respondents' household income was less than 40000, 110 (31.4 %) between 40000-80000,
72 (20.6 %) in between 80000-120000, and 49 (14 %) more than 120000.
Table 1. Demographic Information
Demographics Frequency (N= 350) Perc<
Gender
Male 187 53.4
Female 163 46.6
Locality
Rural 94 26.9
Urban 256 73.1
Age
18-22 100 28.6
23-28 166 47.4
29-33 52 14.9
More than 33 32 9.1
Sect
Ahle-Sunat 243 69.4
Ahle-Hadith 25 7.1
Ahle-Tasih 19 5.4
Any other 63 18
Qualification
Intermediate 32 9.1
Bachelor 107 30.6
Master 122 34.9
M.Phil 71 20.3
PhD 18 5.1
Household Income
Less than 40000 119 34
40000-80000 110 31.4
80000-120000 72 20.6
More than 120000 49 14
Internal consistency reliability was in the range between 0.72 to 0.90. All constructs had reliability more than .70. In the reflective measurement model, it is recommended to have at least .70 reliability. However, the composite reliability of all constructs was up to the required standard ranges from 0.78 to 0.91. So far as AVE is concerned, it should be at least 0.50. All the constructs fulfill this standard. In addition, the overall result of the discriminant validity given in Table 3 assessment was satisfactory. The R2 value of social capital (0.191) and civic accountability (0.135) was weak. Whereas the R2 value of civic engagement was 0.539 which was moderate.
Table 2. Construct Reliability and Validity
Constructs a Composite Reliability AVE
News Media Use 0.79 0.78 0.53
Social Capital 0.72 0.81 0.51
Civic Accountability 0.76 0.85 0.58
Civic Engagement 0.90 0.91 0.50
Table 3. Discriminant Validity
1 2 3 4
1. Civic Accountability .766 -
2. Civic Engagement .704 .700 -
3. News Media Use .367 .406 .619 -
4. Social Capital .459 .481 .437 .647
Note. Bold figures are the square roots of the AVE. The rest of the values represent correlation among latent variables.
Fig. 2. Measurement Model
Table 4 indicated the results of direct and indirect effects. The relationship between news media use and civic engagement (CE) was significant (fi = 0.122, t = 2.28, p = .02). News media use was positively related to social capital (fi = 0.437, t = 9.93, p = .000). The results demonstrated that the association between news media use and civic accountability was significant (fi = 0.367, t = 6.05, p = .000). Moreover, the relationship between social capital and CE was statistically significant (fi= 0.158, t = 3.37, p = .001). The results further illustrated that the relationship between civic accountability and civic engagement was significant (fi = 0.587, t = 13.41, p = .000). Social capital significantly mediated between the relationship of news media use and CE (fi = 0.069, t = 3.22, p = .001). Civic accountability also mediated the relationship between news media use and CE (fi = 0.216, t = 5.47, p = .000).
Media Education (Mediaobrazovanie). 2021. 17(2) Table 4. Results of the Direct and Indirect Effects
Hypothesis Path SD t-value p-value
News Media Use -> Civic Engagement 0.122 0.053 2.28 .022
News Media Use -> Social Capital 0.437 0.044 9.93 .000
News Media Use -> Civic Accountability 0.367 0.061 6.05 .000
Social Capital -> Civic Engagement 0.158 0.047 3.37 .001
Civic Accountability -> Civic Engagement 0.587 0.044 13.41 .000
News Media Use -> Social Capital -> Civic
Engagement 0.069 0.021 3.22 .001
News Media Use -> Civic Accountability ->
Civic Engagement 0.216 0.039 5-47 .000
Fig. 3. Structural Model
In the above structural model, beta and p-values can be observed in the inner model and t-values in the outer model.
5. Conclusion
Summarizing the whole discussion, this study has examined the association between news media use and civic engagement through the mediating role of social capital and civic accountability within the framework of social learning theory. Civic engagement is a positive sign of a civilized society that brings prosperity and play a critical role in making a state welfare. Social capital especially interpersonal trust and the feelings of mutuality enhance engagement inside society. Besides, civic accountability realizes individuals about their civic duties and motivate them to work unconditionally for the sake of their community. A lot of studies have been conducted across the world to identify the role of news media in leading masses towards civic activities. This study has tried to investigate the role of news media in engagement with special reference to Pakistan. In addition to identify the direct relationship between news media and engagement, this study also investigates the mediating effects of social capital and civic accountability. Previous studies have not investigated the mediating role of civic accountability between news media and civic engagement. This study has bridged this gap identifying the mediating effects of civic engagement. A cross-sectional survey design was adopted to carry out this study. PLS-SEM approach was applied to empirically test hypotheses.
The results revealed that news media use has positive and direct effects on civic engagement. This study has found the significant effects of news media on social capital and civic accountability. Moreover, social capital has direct effects on engagement. Civic accountability has also positive effects on civic engagement. Apart from direct effects, this study also identifies indirect effects. Social capital mediates the relationship between news media use and engagement. The results of this study support civic accountability as a positive mediator which significantly mediates between news media use and civic engagement.
The overall results of this study support the propositions of social learning theory proving that people get inspiration from media coverage related to civic activities. Public perception is built through
attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation as Bandura described the phases of learning. The procedure of modelling also plays a crucial role in this regard. More specifically, news consumers follow the footsteps of philanthropists portrayed by media and support them going beyond everything.
References
Akers et al., 1995 - Akers, R.L., Krohn, M.D., Lanza-Kaduce, L, Radosevich, M. (1995). Social learning and deviant behavior: A specific test of a general theory. In Contemporary master's in criminology. Boston, MA: Springer: 187-214. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2094592
Bandura, Walters, 1977 - Bandura, A., Walters, R.H. (1977). Social learning theory (Vol. 1). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice hall.
Bonner, 2009 - Bonner, M.D. (2009). Media as social accountability: The case of police violence in Argentina. The international Journal of Press/politics. 14(3): 296-312. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1177/1940161209334521
Brauer, Tittle, 2012 - Brauer, J.R., Tittle, C.R. (2012). Social learning theory and human reinforcement. Sociological Spectrum. 32(2): 157-177. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173. 2012.646160
Campbell, 1979 - Campbell, B. A. (1979). Theory building in political socialization: Explorations of political trust and social learning theory. American Politics Quarterly. 7(4): 453469. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673X7900700404
Cattell, 2001 - Cattell, V. (2001). Poor people, poor places, and poor health: the mediating role of social networks and social capital. Social science and medicine. 52(10): 1501-1516.
Cho et al., 2003 - Cho, J., Rojas, H, Shah, D.V. (2003). Social capital and media. In Christensen, K., Levinson, D. Encyclopedia of community: From the village to the virtual world. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage: 1291-1295.
Choi, Shin, 2016 - Choi, D.H., Shin, D.H. (2016). A dialectic perspective on the interactive relationship between social media and civic participation: the moderating role of social capital. Information, Communication and Society. 20(2): 151-166. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369 118x.2016.1154586
Collins et al., 2014 - Collins, C.R., Neal, J.W., Neal, Z.P. (2014). Transforming individual civic engagement into community collective efficacy: The role of bonding social capital. American journal of community psychology. 54(3-4): 328-336. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-014-9675-x
Collins, Guidry, 2018 - Collins, C.R., Guidry, S. (2018). What effect does inequality have on residents' sense of safety? Exploring the mediating processes of social capital and civic engagement. Journal of Urban Affairs. 40(7): 1009-1026.
Doolittle, Faul, 2013 - Doolittle, A., Faul, A.C. (2013). Civic engagement scale: A validation study. Sage Open. 3(3): 1-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013495542
Durkin et al., 2005 - Durkin, K.F., Wolfe, T.W., Clark, GA. (2005). College students and binge drinking: An evaluation of social learning theory. Sociological Spectrum. 25(3): 255-272. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/027321790518681
Entman, 2005 - Entman, R.M. (2005). The nature and sources of news. New York: Oxford University Press.
Fieseler, Fleck, 2013 - Fieseler, C., Fleck, M. (2013). The pursuit of empowerment through social media: Structural social capital dynamics in CSR-blogging. Journal of business ethics. 118(4): 759-775. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1959-9
Flanagan et al., 2007 - Flanagan, C, Syvertsen, A.K., Stout, M.D. (2007). Civic measurement models: Tapping adolescents' civic engagement. College Park: Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement, University of Maryland.
Florini, 2012 - Florini, A.M. (ed.). (2012). The third force: The rise of transnational civil society. Brookings Institution Press.
Ford, 2008 - Ford, J.A. (2008). Social learning theory and nonmedical prescription drug use among adolescents. Sociological Spectrum. 28(3): 299-316. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/ 02732170801898471
Gil de Zuniga et al., 2012 - Gil de Züniga, H., Jung, N, Valenzuela, S. (2012). Social media use for news and individuals' social capital, civic engagement and political participation. Journal of computer-mediated communication. 17(3): 319-336. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2012. 01574.x
Hoffman, Thomson, 2009 - Hoffman, L.H., Thomson, T.L. (2009). The effect of television viewing on adolescents' civic participation: Political efficacy as a mediating mechanism. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media. 53(1): 3-21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08838150802643415
Hooghe, 2002 - Hooghe, M. (2002). Watching television and civic engagement: Disentangling the effects of time, programs, and stations. Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics. 7(2): 84-104.
Ida, Saud, 2020 - Ida, R., Saud, M. (2020). An empirical analysis of social media usage, political learning and participation among youth: a comparative study of Indonesia and Pakistan. Quality & Quantity. 54(4): 1285-1297.
Jacklin, Reynolds, 1993 - Jacklin, C.N., Reynolds, C. (1993). Gender and childhood socialization. In Beall, A.E., Sternberg, R.J. (eds.). The psychology of gender. New York Guilford:
197-214.
Jalalani, Shah, 2019 - Jalalani, RA., Shah, N. (2019). Social Capital's Impact on Civic Engagement: An Empirical Study on Pakistani Youth. Grassroots, 53(1): 198-216.
Kenna, Hensley, 2019 - Kenna, J.L., Hensley, MA. (2019). Utilizing social media to promote civic engagement in the social studies classroom. The Social Studies. 110(2): 86-94. https://doi.org/10.1080/00377996.2018.1524360
Kim, 2007 - Kim, S.H. (2007). Media use, social capital, and civic participation in South Korea. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly. 84(3): 477-494. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900708400305
Liu et al., 2014 - Liu, J., Qu, H., Huang, D, Chen, G., Yue, X., Zhao, X., Liang, Z. (2014). The role of social capital in encouraging residents' pro-environmental behaviors in community-based ecotourism. Tourism Management. 41(1): 190-201. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman. 2013.08.016
Livingstone, Markham, 2008 - Livingstone, S., Markham, T. (2008). The contribution of media consumption to civic participation 1. The British journal of sociology. 59(2): 351-371. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2008.00197.x
Lu, Lee, 2021 - Lu, Y., Lee, J.K. (2021). Determinants of cross-cutting discussion on Facebook: Political interest, news consumption, and strong-tie heterogeneity. New Media & Society. 23(1): 175-192.
Mahmood, Saud, 2019 - Mahmood, Q.K., Saud, M. (2019). Civic Participation and Facebook: A cross sectional survey of Pakistani university students. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Contemporary Social and Political Affairs (ICoCSPA). 13: 59-65. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5220/0008816700590065
Maisto et al., 1999 - Maisto, S. A., Carey, K.B., Bradizza, C.M. (1999). Social learning theory. Psychological theories of drinking and alcoholism. 2(1): 106-163.
Martens, Hobbs, 2015 - Martens, H, Hobbs, R. (2015). How media literacy supports civic engagement in a digital age. Atlantic Journal of Communication. 23(2): 120-137. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2014.961636
Mihalic, Elliott, 1997 - Mihalic, S.W., Elliott, D. (1997). A social learning theory model of marital violence. Journal of family violence. 12(1): 21-47.
Mushtaq, Baig, 2015 - Mushtaq, S, Baig, F. (2015). The Relationship of TV News Channels Consumption with Political Participation, Political Knowledge and Civic Engagement. Asian Social Science. 11(12): 46-54. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ass.v11n12p46
Neuman et al., 2011 - Neuman, W.R., Bimber, B., Hindman, M. (2011). The Internet and four dimensions of citizenship. In Shapiro, R.Y., Jacobs, L.R., Edwards, G.C. (eds.). The Oxford handbook of American public opinion and the media. New York, NY: Oxford University Press: 22-42.
Neuman, 2007 - Neuman, L.W. (2007). Social research methods. Pearson Education India. Ohme, 2020 - Ohme, J. (2020). Mobile but not mobilized? Differential gains from mobile news consumption for citizens' political knowledge and campaign participation. Digital Journalism. 8(1): 103-125.
O'Neill, 2009 - O'Neill, B. (2009). The media's role in shaping Canadian civic and political engagement. Canadian Political Science Review. 3(2): 105-127. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.polsoc.2009.11.004
Pasek et al., 2006 - Pasek, J., Kenski, K., Romer, D., Jamieson, K.H. (2006). America's youth and community engagement: How use of mass media is related to civic activity and political
awareness in 14-to 22-year-olds. Communication Research. 33(3): 115-135. DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.1177%2F0093650206287073
Pratt et al., 2010 - Pratt, T.C., Cullen, F.T., Sellers, C.S., Winfree Jr, L.T., Madensen, T.D., Daigle, L.E., Gau, J. M. (2010). The empirical status of social learning theory: A meta-analysis. Justice Quarterly. 27(6): 765-802. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820903379610
Prior, 2003 - Prior, M. (2003). Any good news in soft news? The impact of soft news preference on political knowledge. Political communication. 20(2): 149-171. DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.1080/10584600390211172
Putnam, 1995 - Putnam, R.D. (1995). Tuning in, tuning out: The strange disappearance of social capital in America. PS: Political science and politics. 28(4): 664-684.
Putnam, 2000 - Putnam, R.D. (2000). Bowling Alone. New York: Simon and Schuster. Rafique et al., 2016 - Rafique, Z, Khoo, S.L., Idrees, M. W. (2016). Civic engagement among the youth: empirical evidence from Kashmir, Pakistan. Humanomics. 32(3): 376-388. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/H-12-2015-0077
Shah et al., 2001 - Shah, D.V., Nojin Kwak, Holbert, R.L. (2001). "Connecting" and "disconnecting" with civic life: Patterns of Internet use and the production of social capital. Political communication. 18(2): 141-162.
Shah et al., 2005 - Shah, D.V., Cho, J., Eveland Jr, W.P., Kwak, N. (2005). Information and expression in a digital age: Modeling Internet effects on civic participation. Communication research. 32(5): 531-565.
Son, Lin, 2008 - Son, J., Lin, N. (2008). Social capital and civic action: A network-based approach. Social Science Research. 37(1): 330-349. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch. 2006.12.004
Thorson et al., 2021 - Thorson, K, Cotter, K, Medeiros, M., Pak, C. (2021). Algorithmic inference, political interest, and exposure to news and politics on Facebook. Information, Communication & Society. 24(2): 183-200.
Thorson, Edgerly, 2017 - Thorson, K., Edgerly, S. (2017). Civic Engagement Through Media. The International Encyclopaedia of Media Effects. Wiley Online Library. DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.1002/9781118783764.wbieme0168
Tucker et al., 2021 - Tucker, J.S., Pollard, M.S., Green Jr, H.D. (2021). Associations of social capital with binge drinking in a national sample of adults: The importance of neighborhoods and networks. Health & Place. 69: 102545.
Uslaner, 1998 - Uslaner, E.M. (1998). Social capital, television, and the "mean world": Trust, optimism, and civic participation. Political psychology. 19(3): 441-467. DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.1111/0162-895X.00113
Uslaner, 2018 - Uslaner, E.M. (2018). The Oxford handbook of social and political trust. Oxford University Press.
Verba et al., 1995 - Verba, S., Schlozman, K.L., Brady, H.E. (1995). Voice and equality: Civic voluntarism in American politics. Harvard University Press.
Warren, 2014 - Warren, A.M., Sulaiman, A., Jaafar, N.I. (2014). Social media effects on fostering online civic engagement and building citizen trust and trust in institutions. Government Information Quarterly. 31(2): 291-301. https://doi.org/10.1016Zj.giq.2013.11.007
Xenos et al., 2014 - Xenos, M., Vromen, A., Loader, B.D. (2014). The great equalizer? Patterns of social media use and youth political engagement in three advanced democracies. Information, Communication and Society. 17(2): 151-167.
Xenos, Moy, 2007 - Xenos, M., Moy, P. (2007). Direct and differential effects of the Internet on political and civic engagement. Journal of communication. 57(4): 704-718. DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00364.x
Zhang, Chia, 2006 - Zhang, W., Chia, S. C. (2006). The effects of mass media use and social capital on civic and political participation. Communication Studies. 57(3): 277-297. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1080/10510970600666974
Zhong, 2014 - Zhong, Z.J. (2014). Civic engagement among educated Chinese youth: The role of SNS (Social Networking Services), bonding and bridging social capital. Computers and Education. 75(1): 263-273. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/jxompedu.2014.03.005
Zubair, Halim, 2017 - Zubair, S., Halim, S.A. (2017). Uses of Social Networking Sites towards Civic Engagement in Pakistan and Egypt. International Journal of Research and Development in Social Sciences (IJRDS). 3(1): 40-56.
