CC BY
10
UDC 378.147.809
E. M. Murtazina
NANOSCIENCE ACHIEVEMENTS IN LAWRENCE BERKELEY LABORATORY, USA
(REVIEW OF PUBLICATIONS)
Ключевые слова: нанотрубки, нанопроволоки, нано кластеры, достижения в области нанонауки, формы контролируемых нано кристаллов, высокопроизводительные оптико-электронные приборы, суперсимметричные частицы.
Существуют две основные причины, которые привели к развитию нано-науки. Первая причина заключается в том, что нано-структура достаточно мала, так что квантово-механические эффекты доминируют. Вторая причина заключается в том, что миниатюризация устройств в полупроводниковой промышленности продолжается. В этой статье приводятся данные некоторых научных публикаций, представленных он-лайн в открытом доступе по нано-науке и технике. Обзор в основном сосредоточен на публикациях исследователей Лаборатории Беркли Калифорнийского университета.
Keywords: nanotubes, nanowires, nanoclusters, advancements in nanoscience, shape-controlled nanoscrystals, high-performance
optoelectronic devices, super symmetric particles.
There are two main reasons that have led to the nano-science. The first reason is that the nano-structure is small enough so that quantum mechanical effects dominate. The second reason is that miniaturization of devices in the semiconductor industry has continued. In this article some scientific publications presented on-line in the open access on nano-science and technology has been reviewed. The review is basically centered on the publications of researchers of Berkley Lab, University of California.
Over the past decade, the international and domestic scholars have confirmed to the world that the "build-up" or "build-down" approach to manufacturing of large numbers of nanotubes, as well as nanowires, nanoclusters is quite possible. These efforts have shown that if the nano-structure can be created at low-cost, then the future of the world will soon change for the better. Actually the contemporary nano scale sizes are less than 20 nanometers. In the semiconductor industry, manufacturing is less than 70 nanometers.
It is believed the structure of the devices will continue to shrink. In the next 10 years, nano science and technology will dominate within the semiconductor industry and possibly other industries as well.
There are two main reasons that have led to the nano-science. The first reason is that the nano-structure is small enough so that quantum mechanical effects dominate, for example, quantum effects and the separation of the energy state. In addition to the cause of these phenomena on the basis of physical interest, it also gives scientists new devices and features prepared by the realization of the ideas and concepts, for example, single-electron transport devices such as lasers and quantum dots.
The second reason is that miniaturization of devices in the semiconductor industry has continued. In the opto-electronics, quantum dot lasers show a low threshold current density, low threshold current temperature dependence, as well as the large differential gain advantages, which can produce large differential gain modulation bandwidth. In the sensor applications, nanotechnology and nano-detector sensors to measure extremely small amount of chemical and biological elements, but also opens the possibility of detecting cells, which will result in Biomedicine in the mini-invasive diagnostic techniques. Nano-scale quantum dot devices and other applications, such as ferro-magnetic memory devices quantum dots, quantum dot spin filter and spin memory, etc., have been suggested, the
researchers are certain that these applications will give many potential benefits [2].
The U.S. saw in the fiscal year 2001 an 83 percent growth in the nano field of research, reaching 500,000,000 U.S. dollars in research spending [1].
In this article we review some scientific publications presented on-line in the open access on nano-science and technology impact to our future. The review is basically centered on the publications of researchers of Berkley Lab, University of California.
The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL, LBL), also known as the "Berkeley Lab", is a United States National Laboratory located in the Berkley Hills nearBerkeley, California that conducts unclassified scientific research on behalf of the United States Department of Energy (DOE). It is managed and operated by the University of California. The laboratory was founded in 1931 as the Radiation Laboratory of the University of California, associated with the Physics Department, on August 26 by Ernest Laurence. It centered physics research around his new instrument, thecyclotron, a type of particle accelerator for which he won the Nobel Prize in Physicsin 1939.
From the 1950s through the present, Berkeley Lab has maintained its status as a major international center for physics research, and has also diversified its research program into almost every realm of scientific investigation. The Laboratory's 14 scientific divisions are organized within the areas of Computing Sciences, General Sciences, Energy and Environmental Sciences, Life Sciences, and Photon Sciences. Many research projects are staffed and supported by multiple divisions, with computational and engineering integrated across the biosciences, general sciences, and energy sciences. The scientific divisions include: earth sciences, genomics, life sciences, chemical sciences, environmental energy technologies, materials science, physical biosciences, computational research,
accelerator and fusion research, engineering, nuclear science, nuclear medicine and physics, nanoscience and nanotechnology.
Nowadays, researches in the area of nanoscience in the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratoryhave attracted worldwide attention.
For example, the list of advancements in nanoscience already achieved by Berkeley Lab researchers is lengthy. Scientists here were the first to grow nanocrystals in a variety of shapes, rather than the simple spheres everyone else had produced. Groundbreaking contributions to the fundamental physical chemistry of nanocrystals are the hallmarks of Dr. Alivisatos's distinguished career. His research breakthroughs include the synthesis of size-and shape-controlled nanoscrystals, and forefront studies of nanocrystal properties, including optical, electrical, structural and thermodynamic. In his research, he has demonstrated key applications of nanocrystals in biological imaging and renewable energy. He played a critical role in the establishment of the Molecular Foundry, a U.S. Department of Energy's Nanoscale Science Research Center; and was the facility's founding director. He is the founding editor of Nano Letters, a leading scientific publication in nanoscience [7]. Berkeley Lab researchers were the first to fashion insulated nanowires, buck ball wires sheathed in a boron nitride coating, and created the world's first nanowire nanolasers, measuring just under 100 nanometers in diameter (about one ten-millionth of an inch). With the opening of the Molecular Foundry, Berkeley Lab researchers expect this list of accomplishments to grow.
One of the researchers of the Berkeley Lab,Dr. Omar M. Yaghi, a Jordanian-American chemist, a Professor of Chemistry at University of California and his research laboratories design and produce classes of compounds now known as metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), zeoliticimidazolate frameworks (ZIFs), and covalent organic frameworks (COFs). Among MOFs, there are substances with extremely high surface areas (5640 m2/g for MOF-177) and with very low crystalline densities (0.17 g-cm-3 for COF-108) [5]. He has successfully developed these materials from basic science to applications in clean energy technologies including hydrogen and methane storage, and carbon dioxide capture and storage.
In the growing world of nanosized particles, structures and devices, one of the most compelling stories has been that of quantum dots, semiconductor nanocrystals that light up like neon in a rainbow of sharp colors when bathed in ultraviolet light. Qdots, as they are known, have already fueled several startup high-tech companies, including one spun off from Berkeley Lab. Paul Alivisatos, a Berkeley Lab-UC Berkeley chemist who directs the Materials Sciences Division, is Associate Laboratory Director and one of the founders of quantum dot technology. He and his research team recently added an important new chapter to this unfolding story when they combined quantum dots with segmented nanorods to produce an extensive new array of multi-branched nanostructures [5].
Recently, the Lab and Paul Alivisatos research team achieved a breakthrough by growing nanowires out of the highly prized semiconductor gallium nitride and then controlling the direction in which the nanowires grew. Gallium nitride nanowires are triangular in cross section when grown on a substrate of lithium aluminum oxide but hexagonal when grown on a magnesium oxide substrate. Growth direction is critical to determining a nanowire's electrical and thermal conductivity and other important properties.Furthermore, they learned to tune the separate components of these nanostructures and calculate the electronic interactions of their branches in three dimensions. This makes it possible to create electronic devices tailored to a variety of applications, ranging from quantum computing to artificial photosynthesis.
In another study, quantum dots were used by a Berkeley Lab and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory team as nanosized probes for looking inside the nuclei of biological cells. The cell nucleus has been called one of the best known but least understood of all cell organelles, a knowledge gap that stems from the lack of a way to image long-term phenomena within the nuclei. Berkeley's Fanqing Chen and Livermore's Daniele Gerion found a way to transport silica-coated quantum dots inside cell nuclei. To slip their quantum dots past the membrane that guards entrance to the nucleus, Chen and Gerion stole a trick from the SV40 virus, which gets through the barrier with the help of a protein that binds to a cell's nuclear trafficking mechanism. The researchers obtained a portion of this protein and attached it to their quantum dot, creating a hybrid, part biological molecule and part nanosized semiconductor, small enough to slide through the nuclear membrane's pores, and believable enough to fool its defenses. They've been able to introduce and retain quantum dots in nuclei for up to a week without harming the cell. The dots fluoresce for days at sufficient resolution to detect biological events carried out by single molecules. This should allow scientists to track specific chemical reactions inside nuclei, such as how proteins help repair damaged DNA.
Just as the Microtechnology Age was built upon the introduction of impurities into crystals of semiconductor materials, so too will crystalline doping be the bedrock upon which the Nanotechnology Age is built. Another Alivisatos-led team showed just what happens to nanosized crystals under the various forms of crystalline doping.
They demonstrated that for nanocrystals, the doping process in which one type of positively charged atom, or cation, is exchanged for another takes place at a much faster rate than for microsized crystals, and is fully reversible, something that is virtually forbidden in the larger crystals under the same environmental conditions. This should accelerate the process of developing doped nanocrystals.
Another breakthrough was achieved by a Berkeley Lab-UC Berkeley team led by chemist Peidong Yang, who grew nanowires out of the highly prized semiconductor gallium nitride, and controlled the direction in which these nanowires grew [4]. Growth direction is critical to determining a nanowire's
electrical and thermal conductivity and other important properties. Nanotechnologists are eager to tap into the enormous potential of gallium nitride for use in highpower, high-performance optoelectronic devices. With further development, the technology of Yang and his colleagues should make it possible for gallium nitride nanowires to be integrated with thin films of various compositions to produce light-emitting diodes, transistors, biochemical sensors and ultraviolet-wavelength nanolasers [5, 6].
Yet another development brings the promise of mass production to nanoscale devices. A team of Berkeley Lab and UC Berkeley researchers led by physicist Alex Zettl has been able to transform carbon nanotubes into conveyor belts capable of ferrying atom-sized particles to microscopic worksites [3]. By applying a small electrical current to a carbon nanotube, the team was able to move individual atoms of indium along the tube, like auto parts on an assembly line. In a series of tests, the indium was repeatedly moved back and forth along the nanotube without losing a single atom. This research lays the groundwork for the high-throughput construction of the atomic-scale optical, electronic, and mechanical components from which future nanodevices will be fabricated.
Berkeley Lab researchers are no strangers to studies of the cosmos. Physicists here pioneered the measurement of minute temperature differences in the cosmic microwave background radiation, and it was here that the Supernova Cosmology Project developed methods for measuring the expansion of the universe with distant supernovae, leading directly to the discovery of accelerating expansion and the existence of dark energy.
While the questions may be cosmic, the answers are intertwined with our understanding at the highest energy and smallest length scales. In the tradition of Ernest Lawrence, teams of Berkeley Lab scientists and engineers, through collaborations with many institutions in many nations, are leaders in the design of novel accelerator systems and detectors worldwide. Their contributions are crucial to the ATLAS detector at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. Digital Optical Modules devised here are being sunk in the South Polar ice for the IceCube neutrino telescope. The GRETINA detector and the VENUS superconducting heavy ion source created here are prototype components for a potential Rare Isotope Accelerator; farther in the future will come detectors and damping rings for the International Linear Collider. Electron beams accelerated by laser-driven wake fields through plasma channels have demonstrated a new principle of "tabletop" acceleration [8].
Candidates for dark energy include the quantum-mechanical energy of the vacuum; fields dubbed "quintessence" whose strength varies with time; discontinuities in the fabric of space-time created in the Big Bang; or even extra-spatial dimensions. To distinguish among them, the expanding universe must be probed to greater distances and earlier times [9, 10].
Lab scientists are attacking the problem from many angles. The international Nearby Supernova Factory based here will reduce the remaining
uncertainties in Type Ian measurements through advanced spectroscopy of hundreds of supernovae only tens of millions of light-years distant, found by an automated sky search.
The Supernova/Acceleration Probe, SNAP, is a collaboration of over 100 individuals from 15 academic and government institutions in the U.S., France, and Sweden, based at Berkeley Lab. Designed to measure thousands of distant supernovae in unprecedented detail, SNAP is the inspiration and a leading candidate for the Joint Dark Energy Mission announced by NASA and DOE in 2003, which ranks among the highest of DOE's priority scientific facilities for the future [7].
SNAP has been described as "a camera with a telescope attached" — a two-meter reflector focusing a square degree of sky on a half-billion-pixel imager, hundreds of times the Hubble Space Telescope's field of view. The imager's most critical component is a rugged, radiation-resistant charge-coupled device (CCD) with extraordinary sensitivity to long wavelengths.
SNAP's astronomical CCD is a descendant of the silicon vertex detectors built by Berkeley Lab for some of the world's most important high-energy physics experiments, among them the CDF experiment at Fermi lab, used to find and measure the top quark; the Babar experiment at SLAC, which measures the asymmetric decay of B mesons; and the innermost pixel detector of the giant ATLAS experiment at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), now under construction at CERN. ATLAS is hoping to find the Higgs Boson, from which all other particles derive their mass — and search beyond the Higgs for super symmetric particles, extra dimensions of space, and even miniature black holes.
Berkeley Lab scientists and engineers designed and built the support structure for the 10,000 photomultiplier tubes of the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO), buried two kilometers deep in Ontario, Canada and designed to study neutrinos created in our sun. Kaman, the Kamioka Liquid-scintillator Anti-Neutrino Detector that studies low-energy neutrinos from Japanese nuclear power plants, employs electronics designed, built, and installed by Berkeley Lab collaborators. At the heart of the IceCube astronomical observatory now under construction at the South Pole are the unique electronics of the digital optical modules (DOMs) designed here — eventually 80 strings of 60 DOMs each will dangle up to 2.5 kilometers under the ice, catching signals of high-energy cosmic neutrinos from the farthest reaches of space.
From the most elusive of Standard Model particles to yet-undiscovered particles, fields, and extra dimensions, Berkeley Lab physicists and engineers lead the cosmic search.
References
1. Г.Г. Амирова, И.Х. Зиганшин, Вестник Казанского технологического университета, 14, 15, 272-276 (2011).
2. A. Zettletal, Nano Letters, 7, 11, 3508-3511 (2007)
3. A. Zettletal, Nature Nanotechnology, published on-line 20 July 2008
4. L. Elaine, K. Woong, and Y. Peidong, Nano Res., 1, 123128 (2008)
5. A.G. Wong-Foy, A.J. Matzger, O.M. Yaghi, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 128 (11), 3494-3495; Jennifer Kahn, National Geographic, 98-119 (2006)
6. H.M. El-Kaderi, J.R. Hunt, J.L. Mendoza-Cortés, A.P. Côté, R.E. Taylor, M. O'Keeffe, O.M. Yaghi, Science, 316 (5822), 268-72 (2007)
7. K. Manthiram, Y. Surendranath, A. Paul Alivisatos, JACS, 136, 7237-7240 (2014)
8. C. Fanqing, D. Gerion, Sci STKE, published on-line 28 June 2005
9. Э.М. Муртазина, Вестник Казанского технологического университета, 9, 728-732 (2010)
10. Э.М. Муртазина, Г.Г. Амирова, Вестник Казанского технол. университета, 16, 9, 336-342 (2013)
© E. M. Murtazina - Ph.D. in Pedagogy, Assoc. Professor, the Department of Foreign Languages for Professional Communication, KNRTU, murel@inbox.ru.
© Э. М. Муртазина - к.пед.н., доц. каф. иностранных языков в профессиональной коммуникации КНИТУ, murel@inbox.ru.
