CC BY
29Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences 3 (2014 7) 404-415
УДК 781.5
Mourning Themes in the Music of Dmitri Shostakovich
Olesya A. Osipenko*
Krasnoyarsk State Academy of Music and Theatre 22 Lenin Str., Krasnoayrsk, 660049, Russia
Received 11.08.2013, received in revised form 15.09.2013, accepted 22.12.2013
The thematic invention is one of the main categories of musical knowledge and theory of musical composition. Complexity and multifacetedness of this notion being the summary of many themes provides various ways of considering it. The primary importance of thematic invention in the musical composition is determined by a complex of functions, which this compositional element fulfills. Moreover, to understand the themes of the music work it is necessary to study their semantics, genre and style models.
In this article we use the themes with mourning semantics represented in the instrumental chamber music of Dmitri Shostakovich. We analyze the thematic invention on the Fig. of the genre model of the funeral march numerously implemented by the composer in pure instrumental music, as well as in the music written for theatre performances andfilms. Special attention is paid to the themes of the Quartet cycles of the composer.
Keywords: Dmitri Shostakovich, thematic invention, Quartets, funeral march.
Instrumental chamber music of Dmitri Shostakovich represents one of the important areas of the composer's work. In this regard, the Quartet cycles that the author was creating throughout his life are especially notable. During the period from 1938 to 1975, he wrote fifteen such ensembles in total.
Themes of Shostakovich Quartets are varied in terms of genre models they contain, which are enshrined in the historical memory (historical memory issues are discussed in the article by O.A. Bozhchenko) (Bozhchenko, 2012). The composer uses primary genres as the basis: song, romance, sarabande, waltz, baroque aria, polka, gallop, serenade, march, and genres that have
© Siberian Federal University. All rights reserved
* Corresponding author E-mail address: Averkole@mail.ru
emerged in the professional works: humoresque, scherzo, nocturne, elegy.
Among genre pre-images of the String Quartets' thematism, the funeral march is especially important.
As pointed out in N.M. Naiko's book (Naiko, 2012: 79), Shostakovich's life circumstances contributed to the fact that the theme of death entered his mind early and became if not the central one, nevertheless a very important and very attractive one.
The composer chooses certain genre models to implement the images of death that act for him as the carriers of mourning semantics (the funeral march, chant, elegy and ancient dances of Spanish
origin: sarabande, chaconne, passacaglia). This article discusses the implementation of the funeral march's features in the Quartets.
In the music encyclopedia, the funeral march is defined as a kind of a march (from marche (French) - walking, marching), music of solemnly mournful character in the rhythm of a steady, slow step
One of the first creative experiments of D. Shostakovich referred to the age period of 9-11 years is "The funeral march in the memory of the victims of the revolution" for piano, in which the impressions of the author about participation in the funeral procession are reflected (Khentova, 1985 : 82-83). "Thus, children Funeral March opens a list of compositions and episodes of the funeral music that Shostakovich was replenishing during his entire creative life. Hardly any of the composers of the 20th century has a longer list of such music samples. It covers many genres in Shostakovich works: piano miniatures, symphonies and string quartets, pieces of music for theater productions and films" (Naiko, 2012: 79)).
Shostakovich funeral marches are presented in music for the films "Golden Mountains" (1931), "Hamlet" (1932) and "The Great Citizen" (193839). There, the composer follows the tradition of marches devoted to the hero's death (analogue -Marce funebre of Beethoven's Third Symphony and the Second Sonata by Chopin).
In the Aphorisms for piano, the Eleventh Symphony g-moll of 1905, Composition 103 (1957) and Shostakovich Quartets, the genre model of the funeral march is implemented in an indirect manner. The chamber instrumental cycles of this group include: the theme of the central group of the 4th variation of the Third Quartet, the first and second episodes of the 4th part of the Eighth Quartet (n. 54-56 and 58-61, respectively), the second theme of the episode in the development of the second part of the Twelfth
Quartet, which first appears in n. 46, the first and second themes of the 5th part (with the title the "Funeral March") of the Fifteenth Quartet. The themes of the quartets' parts with the genre designation "Elegy" are adjacent to them by meaning, namely the first and the second themes of the 6th part of the Eleventh Quartet, as well as the second theme of the first part of the Fifteenth Quartet.
The themes reflecting the typical features of a funeral march in the works of Shostakovich are characterized by the use of metric definition, selection of a quadruple meter, a minor key and a slow tempo. In the melody (most often it evolves in a small register), there are fanfare moves per quarte combined with rounded motives with "flagging" endings. Dotted rhythmic formulas are introduced in the theme. With regard to the structure of the melody, square, syntactically equal structures get a prevailing value. In the harmony, the guiding principle becomes smooth voicing, in the bass the main harmonic functions are highlighted (T-D, T-S).
A specific feature of the applied march embodied also in the works of Shostakovich, is sounding of the percussion instruments - the bass drum, timpani. It is clearly observed in the funeral march from the movie "The Great Citizen", where the timpani are used (Fig. 1).
The revolutionary march-song "Tormented to death by a heavy captivity"2 is chosen as a pre-image of the theme. The composer turns to it in other works as well: Symphony No. 11 (the third part) and the Eighth Quartet (the fourth part).
In the original (Fig. 2) the song sounds quietly in the medium register (at some points the register gets wider with transition to head tones). The most significant melodic turns are: step to the triad and descending motives in the range from thirds to sevenths finishing the syntactic structures. The march features make an impact on the rhythmic framing of the theme: the initial
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The March from the film "The Great Citizen" (see Fig. 1) is outlined by a high degree or summarizing (it sounds in a quied dynamics, in honical dominant pedal point). The following texture plans are determined in it: melody (first violin), which is in the sphere of diatonicism for a long time, andaccompaniment (general in terms of rhythm frr strings and individual for timpani). In the part of the latter, the composer uses two methodn of play mg nhe drums typical fon marching music. The first method it rhe tnemoUo of timpani, which is implemented by alteration of the 1st and the 5th degrees in bass. The second method is rolling. This figure is presented in the form oe a formula in triplet rhythm, the soundr of which are
at one pitch of the tone and then alternate quickly (see sections 5-9 of the Example).
In the theme of the ab ovementioned movie, such sound quality as lyricism is emphasized. This happens due to smootie melndic liees and instrumentation (the melody is entrusted to the group of stringed instruments). However, attention is drawn to long holding of the tonic petal point (the tone "c" in the camoll tone), symbolizing the stop ot the eimh Later on, Shostakovich introduces such expressive means in hit instoumental cham°e( cycles.
In the second episode oO the 4th part of the Quartet No. 8 (Fig. 3), the version of the marchsong closest in the intonation appearance to the hriginal source ie fonmed (til sounds in the quiet eynamics - no and the slow tempo - CergoS. The
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composer reconsiders the original model of the genre model changing the meter, significantly slowing the tempo, eliminating any signs of marching in the melody (auch as the dotted rhythm, accented melodic and rhythmic formulas), and leaving only the initiar step to the fourth in the upbeat. This theme sounds concentrated and sad.
Herewith, Shentakovich introduces the chromatic descending rhetoric figure passus duriusculus into the melody of the second violin. It is aiven as rhytamic inareasing, thus emphasizing its function of a sign. Let us remember, tathat passus duriusculus (hard step) is a type of melodic figures, the function of which is to deliver emotions. an the Baroque epoch passus duriusculus "was used to inhensiey the expressiveness of the words "to suffer", "to die", "sorrow" and ''death". Thus, it supposes either ascending or deocending oemitone steps, as well as the steps to small chromatic intervals: a diminished third ora diminished fourth.
Moreover, like in the theme of the Funeral Marca in "The Great Citizen", in the 4th part of the EighthQuartet the background oS "the time standing ttill" ¿appears due to the absent changes in the harmonic functions and due to the prolongation of the "cis" tone in the parts of viola and violoncello itonic pedal point is held for 30 bar-lice e).
As a result of the abovementioned factors, in this version of the funeral march the specific dramaturgic hunction is emphasized and the plan of the author's interpretation appears in the theme.
In the third part of the Eleventh Symphony (Fig. 4) She song melody sounde con eord. on the baciground of the violoncello and contrabass, the voices of which are magadizing. T lie texture of the theme in this part is especially moderate and concentnattd, while id combines cnly two lines. In the 3rd part of the Symphony, tie componento of the fune rill march model are not fully implemente d (for
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example, there are no accented rhythmic formulas and no reflection of drumming). In the melodic line of the accompanying part, the descending steps to minor seconds appear at the end of the triad. The melody is based on typical formulas, the pattern of the melody line is "straight" and has a generalized nature. Shostakovich uses the minor key with lower degrees: 1st, 4th and 5th. The determined melodic and harmonic peculiarities of the theme contribute to creation of a funeral mood.
The pithiness of the texture and unchangeable theme contribute to the fact, that it gets the sign function generally implementing the idea of inescapable deep sorrow (indicated by the title of the part: "Imperishable Memory").
In quartets, the composer uses stringed instruments to recreate the drumming: drum rolling. For example, it is presented in the second theme of the Funeral March from the Fifteenth Quartet in the lower voice as steps to fourths and fifths. In the context of the fifth part of the cycle it gets a different length (from one-two bars, as in lines 21, 22, 23, 44 , 47-48 to four bars - in lines 17-20 , 49-52 - Fig. 5). The increase of the measure happens due to the motive repetition. On the one hand, in this formula the timpani sound is modeled, on the other hand, due to the violoncello tone, it is also possible to hear voice expression.
Three themes of the quartets (the first theme of the fourth part of the Eleventh Quartet, the second theme of the 2nd part of the Twelfth Quartet and the first theme of the 5th part of the Fifteenth Quartet) are laconic and textured. These themes are generalized to the maximum:
leveled in intonation, rhythmic and dynamic relation (are held in the constant dynamics). This is also confirmed by small-scale structures (from two to nine bars) and preserving of the basic characteristics (in the statements following the exposition texture, the choral constitution with monorhythmic movement of the voices, instrumentation and plan of harmonic functions are preserved). As a result of the abovementioned features, these themes are also elevated to the grade of a sign. In general, they can be interpreted as a symbol of fateful predestination, inevitability of death.
In the initial theme of the 5th part of the Fifteenth Quartet the signs of the funeral march are maximally exposed (Fig. 6). Its melody is laconic, generalized, presented in the form of a concise formula of three sounds in the dotted rhythm. For each instrument it is formed as a motive at a constant tone. Herewith, a tonic triad (es-moll) is formed vertically, the sounds of which are distributed among all members of the ensemble. The theme sounds in the loud dynamics f) and is perceived as a threatening sign of an immutable external start, inevitable fate .
In the texture of the second theme of the 2nd part of the Quartet No. 12 (Fig. 7) the mute in a very quiet dynamics (pp) is used. Despite the fact that it contains the funeral march genre characteristics (meter, dotted formula, slow tempo), due to harmonizing the melody by minor triads (g-as-gb-as-g-as-d4), moving parallely, associations with another genre appear, namely with chorale. The mournful nature of the theme is emphasized by the Phrygian mode (in the g-moll key the 2nd low degree appears). The above-
Fig. 5
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mentioned conditions allow to interpret this Chorale as a sign of the funeral.
In the first theme of the 6th part (Elegy) of the Eleventh Quartet, despite the ternary meter, the model of the funeral march can be cleaily identified. It represents itself in equal steps, in an upbeat beginning of the motives and dotted rhythmic formulas that emphasize mainlo the weak beat (second or third). This cieates a certain artistic effect and causes a particular type of the movement in the representation: the alternation of steps and stops typical for processions. The melody is given at ff in the octave by viola and violoncello, the trihord melodies are leading here (in the thirds and the quart).
The theme is exhibited in the cis-moll key with the low 2nd degree, thus leading to the
formation of the Phrygian mode intensifying the gloomy mood. Lowering the 4th degeee leads to narrowing of the range of the motives to the minor fourth, which adds the hint of tension to the melody (Fig. 88).
The theme or the first epitode of the 6sh part of the Eighth Quartet (n. 54-56, Fig. 9) has a similar solution as the above theme of the Eleventh Quartet, which is manilestef in the choice of loud dynamics (ff) and instrumentation (three instruments - the second violin, viola cnd violoncallo - perfoem the melody bf magadizing). Just as in the previous one, in this theme the composer uses the cis-moll key with alternated steps - low 2nd (a sign of the Phrygian mode), 3rd, 4th, 5th, 7th
and high 6th and 7th.
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Fig. 9
This theme is similar to the theme of the second episo de of tehe 44th part of the Eighth Quartet being analyzed, basicg on the revolutionary song "Tormented to death by a heavy captivity". In particular, they have a common genre nature, one measuue, and contain similar rhythmic figures. Features of the song appear through chanting intervals, the leading value of which belongs to conjunct steps to seconds, and through the
rhythmic freedom (in the process of development the hhythmic component is constantly updated). Along with this, soma other featuaes typical for the funeral march can be noted: slow tempo, minor mo de, tepetition of figtrys leading to reareadion of the effett of the yten. However, the somposer in the theme of tOe first episode of the 4th part of the Eighth Quartet modifies the marching model by changinr the measure to ternary, resulting in
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the fact that tlnis genre model is embodied in a veiled, "blurred" form.
Herewith, the melodic figures are introduced to the musical texture, which fulfill the function of the author's undeestanding. This can be seen in the part of the first violin joining the ensemble in n. 55. Its line plhced in ihe middle la^r of the textuee (due to the placemena in tfie middle register), forms e counterpoine in a form of a "sorrowful" sign written out by increased time values - the figtre ttf the csoss, tfe introduction of which points to the manifesfaiion of the Author's plan, direct experience of the events by the author. As a result, a monumental austere image appears in the theme, on the one hand, striking with its restraint, and on the other hand by personal attitude (it is also indicated by the introduction of "dragging" intonations - turns including the steps to the minor fourth).
Among Shostakovich marches, the Funeral March from "The Aphorisms" for piano (1927, Fig. 10) is especially notable, which is a type of major Funeral March. Shostakovich complicates the original C-dur tone by changing some degrees (higher 1st, higher 4th is the sign of the Lydian, and lower 7th the sign of the Mixolydian modes), and possibly simultaneous combination of high 4th and low 7th (see the 13th bar line of
the example), or the batic aed higher version of one degree (bar lines 5, 6, 7, 13 - f-fis, bar line 14 - h-b). The theme of the piece contains fanfare eteps to widt inServals (tritoh, steps to e perfect and diminished ortave) and motives a^ ene sound. The peculiarity of this march is obtained due to: texture organization (all vfices fre melodized, resulting in a polyphonic texture, where each voice is independent), variable meter (Sinary-ternary) and measure, which persists until the end of the; musac piece, frequent change of registers. In the analyzed "Funeral Memf" the composer recreates drumming. The "formula of the snare drum" appears due to constant repetition of the pitched tone in the rhythm 7T.. Despite the fact that the "Funeral March" from "The Aphorisms" implements the basic elements that are typical for the genre, it does not become a genre scene embodying the movement of the funeral procession. Due to various factors described above (specific themes, mode and texture, the prevalence of quiet dynamics) it enhances the author's understanding, refracted reflection of the events described.
In Shostakovich quartets the genre model of the funeral march is normally presented immediately upon exposure of the theme (or several themes). The only exception is the 4th part
Fig. 11
of the Quartet No. 3 (Fig. 11), where the actual funeral march features are manifested since the medial group of variations (it remains in the recapitulation group). Both main themes in the initial setting were performed alternately in the part of the violin. The first theme was performed by three lower instruments of the Quartet and sounding initially at ff with octave magadizing. It is a pathetic recitative full of anger and bitterness. It immediately showed the signs of genre diffusion due to the simultaneous combination of the features of the march, declamation and chanting5. The second theme is an allusion to the main motive Andante of the second string quartet by P. Tchaikovsky. In this theme combining chanting and voice expressiveness, the flagging ends of the motives provide its sound with pathetic, mournful questioning hints.
In the middle of the form, the themes follow each other, forming a horizontal combination, the second of which appears as a continuation of the first arising from its end (the final tone of the first theme «gis» becomes the initial tone of the second theme). Both themes are held against the background of an accentuated rhythmic formula in a dotted rhythm typical for the funeral march (three other members of the quartet ensemble: first - in bar lines 40-44, 48-52, 68-82, the second - in bar lines 45-47). As the result of this synthesis of genre models, the genre polyphony is formed. During the interaction of genres, the
genre memory mechanism "starts working", when "the musical material in the minds of listeners, artists and participants of communication comes in strong association with the genre situation. And then, in other circumstances and conditions, and sometimes in a different historical context, it begins to act as a reminder of the previous situation and causes some specific aesthetic experiences coloured with memories" (Nazaikinskii, 2003: 107).
The genre diffusion is also found in the second theme of the 6th part of the Eleventh Quartet (n. 37, Fig. 12), while it contains the features of both the romance song and the march.
The song melody is played by the first violin on the background of the tone held in the "cis" bass (violoncello and viola). Due to the high pitch, wide range and delimitation of other instruments, its sound is particularly expressive and "flying". Its basic intonations are abysmal lamento tertian motives (also the steps to thirds appear frequently). In the medium voice of the second violin, the initial theme of the part gets further development, from which it gets the rhythmic formula emphasizing the second beat of the measure typical for the sarabande genre. Such combination of models leads to the phenomenon of the genre polyphony.
Therefore, we can make the following conclusions. In the works of Dmitri Shostakovich, the funeral march genre was used as the means
Fig. 12
with fixed mourning semantics. On the basis of this analysis, -we have determined that tho composer was actively working with the original model of the genre in various fields of his work. If in the music for theatrical performances and films, marches are closer io applied ones implementing the prototype genre situation, in the chamber inrtrumental cycles, symphonies and piano miniatures, the Oorm of the funeral march is expressed indirectly. This is largely due to the assimilation of the genre with other genmes bearing the fnneral semantics, namely, the chorale, the sarabande, thn revolutionary marchsong with the relevant content. The combination of the elements of different genres both horizontally and vertically leads to the genre diffusion and
genre polyphony, underlining ihe oomplexity and ambiguitf of the phenomenon being analyzed.
Unchangeable marching themes in the works of Shostakovich, as well as their brevity and pithineis allow to interpret them as signs, symbols with the fixed mounning sense (falal predestination, the situation of death, grief).
The cnmposer's work with this model in the genres of "pure" music is the inclusion of the theme of the Baroque rhetorical figures (catabasis, passus duriusculus) and the cross.
In genemal, ihe abovnmentioned methods of modifying Ohi origonal model eel" the tuneral march implemented by Dmitri Shostakovich, reflect the author's active position and lead to incueafrdunderstanding ofthe author'u fdeas.
1 Funeral marches originally were created specifically to accompany funeral processions (later music pieces - funeral marches of F.Zh. Gossec in the times of the French Revolution). In the next period of time the composers included funeral marches into orntfrio ("Saul" by Handel), opera ("Twilight of the Gods" by Wagner), they bngan to functitn as a slow part of the cyclic instrumental works - symphonies, sonatas, created as separate pieces of music.
Examples of funeral marches are found in the music of the compobers tl various eras: in the works of BeeOhoven - "Funeral march on the death of the hero" of the Piano Sonata No. 12 comp. 26 and of the Third Symphony, Chopin - the second , b- moll Sonata comp, 35, Wagner - in the opera "Cw ilighi of the G ods", Mahler - in Ihe First Symphony (one of eh e parts is called "Funeral March in the manner of Callot"), Grieg - Funeral March in memory of Rikard Nordraak, Arensky - in
suite No. 3 (variations) C-major comp. 33 (No. 7 - Funeral March), Sviridov- in the"Suite", Anton Webern - in the Music Pieces, Op. 6 (No. 4).
The author of the music is unknown, the text was written by G. Machtet.
The turn to the fourth opens the theme of the second episode of the 4th part of the Quartet No. 8; in the Funeral March from the movie and in the main theme of the 3rd part of the Symphony No. 11 the step to the fifth is chosen as the beginning. In the latter accord there is no tertian tone which contributes to the formation of the fifth-fourth chord. The notions "genre diffusion" and "genre polyphony" were developed by V.N. Kholopova in the book "Music as a Kind of Art". Herewith, the notion "genre diffusion" means "such interpenetration, entwinement of specific features of different genres, when this or that element of the music texture manifests simultaneously features of two or more types of musical models". (like, for example, in Es-dur Prelude of Scriabin, where there are features of chorale, march and declamation). Kholopova calls the genre polyphony "a simultaneous development of two or more texturally different genre plans in uniform or contrast themes" [Kholopova, 2000: 214-215].
References
1. Bozhchenko O.A. (2012) Faktory formirovaniia istoricheskoi pamiati. Voprosy kul'turologii[The Factors of Forming the Historic Memory. Issues of Culture Study], (9), p. 57-62.
2. Naiko N.M. Poznavshii tainu zvuka: stat'i o muzyke i muzykantakh. [Understanding the Secret of the Sound: Articles about Musci and Musicians], Krasnoyarsk Academy of Music and Theater, Krasnoyarsk, 2012. 288 p.
3. Nazaikinskii E.V Stil' i zhanr v muzyke. [The Style and Genre in Music] Moscow, "VLADOS" Publishing Centre. 2003. 248 p.
4. Naiko N.M, Osipenko O.A. Strunnye kvartety 40-50gg.: intonatsionnye i dramaturgicheskie osobennosti [String Quartets of 40s-50s: intonation and dramaturgy peculiarities]- Krasnoyarsk: Krasnoyarsk Academy of Music and Theater. 2009. 224 p.
5. Novikov V.I., Shklovskii E.A. Literaturaturovedenie otA do Ia. Entsiklopedicheskii slovar' dlia iunoshestva [Literature Studies from A to Z. Encyclopedia Dictionary for Young People] Moscow: Modern Pedagogics Publishing Centre: Pedagogika-Press, 2001. 526 p.
6. Khentova S.D. Shostakovich. Zhizn' i tvorchestvo [Life and Art] Vol.1. Leningrad: Sov. Kompozitor, 1985. 544 p.
7. Kholopova V.N. Muzyka kak vid iskusstva: v 2 ch. [Music as a Kind of Art: in 2 Volumes] St. Peterburg: Lan', 2000. 319 p.
Траурные темы в сочинениях Д. Шостаковича
О.А. Осипенко
Красноярская государственная академия музыки и театра Россия, 660049, Красноярск, ул. Ленина, 22
Тематизм является одной из основных категорий музыкознания и теории музыкальной композиции. Сложность и многогранность данного понятия, выступающего суммой множества тем, обусловливают различные варианты его рассмотрения. Первостепенная значимость тематизма в музыкальном сочинении определяется комплексом функций, которые выполняет этот композиционный элемент. Кроме того, необходимым для понимания тем произведения становится исследование их семантики, жанровой и стилевой модели.
Материалом для статьи выступают темы с траурной семантикой, воплощенные в камерно-инструментальном творчестве Д.Д. Шостаковича. В статье содержится анализ тематизма на примере жанровой модели траурного марша, неоднократно воплощаемой композитором в сфере чистой инструментальной музыки, а также в музыке к театральным спектаклям и кинофильмам. Особое внимание в статье получают темы квартетных циклов композитора.
Ключевые слова: Д. Шостакович, тематизм, квартеты, траурный марш.
