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0MEMORIAL-RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE OF CENTRAL ASIA IN AMIR TEMUR EPOCH: EVOLUTION, TYPOLOGY, SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS
Mavlyuda Abbasova-Yusupova
Prof, Doctor of Science in architecture, Director of "Silk Road" International Research Institute of "Silk Road" International University of Tourism and Cultural Heritage https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11221013
Keywords: Sufi, shrine, memorial-religious, architecture, Amir Temur, complex, mausoleum, khanaqah.
Summary. This presentation will reflect the typology and less studied characteristics of the memorial- religious, mainly Sufi architecture of Central Asia in the end of 14th-beginning of 15th centuries. The mausoleums and khanaqah-mausoleums, constructed under the order of Amir Temur at burial sites of holy Sufi preceptors and other Islamic Saints. Among them, based upon the archeological, natural and historical data, author is presenting less studied mausoleum of Nur ad-din Basir of the end of 14th c. in Samarkand and the Sheikh Muslihiddin mausoleum-khanaqah in Hujand as an architectural monument reconstructed by Temur in the end of 14th c.
In 1370 in Mavarannahr - a notable historic-cultural region of Central Asia a talented warlord and political figure Amir Temur occupies his place on the throne. He was also named as Sahibkiran - born under a star of fortune. In short time he had conquered the lands of Persia, Iraq, Syria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Khurasan, Afghanistan, North India etc. and has created a vast and powerful empire.
Sahibkiran paid great attention towards formation of lustrous architecture of his empire and especially its' capital - Samarkand as well as his birth town of Shahrisabz. In Mavarannahr as in a melting pot, architectural ideas and selected skills of the best expatriate architects were fusing and molding. These engineers, décor artists, master masons and other craftsmen were transplanted by Temur from other conquered regions of the Middle East.
Sahibkiran has personally been involved in the decision-making and construction of the distinguished and unique erections. Temur personally has reviewed and modified the projects, controlled the construction process through specially appointed trustees and periodically has personally visited the construction sites.
He constantly was demanding larger scales and volumes of the buildings and had punished architects and responsible figures guilty of erecting not large enough portal entrances. The architectural legacy of the Temur's epoch is well studied and reflected in numerous works by local1 and international2 scholars. Larger portion of such works shed the light in the context of generalization of Islamic art and architecture of the Middle East and Central Asia. Several aspects of this heritage are discussed in specialized works by L.Golombek, R.Wilber and other
1Borodina I.F. Arxitektura Sredney Azii konsa XIV-XV vv. //Vseobshaya istoriya arxitekturi. T.8. M.,1969. S. 277304; Pugachenkova G. A., Rempel' L. I. Istoriya iskusstv Uzbekistana s drevneyshix vremen do seredini XIX v. M., 1965; Pugachenkova G. A. Zodchestvo Sentral'noy Azii. XV v. Vedushie tendensii i cherti. Tashkent, 1976; Man'kovskaya L.Yu. Tipologicheskie osnovi zodchestva Sredney Azii (IX- nach. XX vv.), Tashkent,1980; Zaxidov
P.Sh. Arxitekturnoe sozvezdie epohi Temura. Tashkent. 1996, and others.
2
Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Architecture: Form, Function and Meaning. Edinburgh and New York, 1994; Blair, Sheila, and Jonathan Bloom. The Art and Architecture of Islam, 1250-1800. Pelican History of Art. New Haven, 1994, and many others.
researchers3.
Generalization and analysis of these and other works as well as a number of personal researches4, new archival, expedition and historical source studies have laid the foundation to identify several less studied aspects of given architecture.
Sahibkiran, being an apprentice-murid of several Sufi mentors have paid great reverence and attention towards construction of the memorial-cult buildings at burial sites of the esteemed Sufi saints.
Sufism (at-Tasavvuf) - is a mystic-ascetic branch and religious-philosophical teaching in Islam. Local Sufi teachings of - Yassviya, Qubraviya and Hodjagon, named Naqshbandiya in later period, gain greater popularity in Central Asia from the 12th century. Murids under the supervision of their mentors (Shaikh, pir, murshid) were residing in khanaqah-shrines, which included the ritual hall, called khanaqah as well. These buildings were intended for studying and practicing the religious teaching.
Such shrines were formed in the vicinity of the khanaqah abode of the living Sufi figure or near already existing tomb of a departed saint. Gradually around the shady court yard with luscious greenery a number of other buildings was constructed: mausoleum of a saint, ritual hall-khanaqah, a mosque, hujrahs of mentors and murids, housing cells for pilgrims, other chambers for domestic and utility needs etc.
Sahibkiran during his first years of reign, following local traditions had erected human proportionate in size buildings. However, from the boundary of 14th -15th centuries he had implemented innovative ideas, demanding from the architects creation of a gigantic constructions.
In general, we may pinpoint three types of the memorial constructions in architecture of Amir Temur, which we will review in brief. We will pay greater amount of attention towards the evolution of the memorial architecture and typology of these buildings:
First type - one-chamber domed mausoleums of Sufi mentors, constructed in later third of the 14th century.
Shams ad-din Kulol mausoleum in Shahrisabz. 1370s. 1. Drawings - facade, incision (Album Shahrisabz. 2002. P. 28). 2. On the photo - is the
left building.
3 Golombek, Liza. The Timurid Shrine at Gazur Gah. Royal Ontario Museum Art and Archaelogy. Occasional Paper, 15. Toronto, 1969; Golombek, Liza and Donald Wilber. The Timurid Architecture of Iran and Turan. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988; Golombek, Liza. Tamerlane, Scourge of God // Asian Art. Volume II, Number 2, Spring, 1989. Published by Oxford University Press in association with the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution.
4 Yusupova Mavlyuda. L'evolution architectural des couvents soufis timouride et post post - timouride. a l'epoque L'heretage timouride. Iran - Asie Cemtreale - Inde, XV - XVIII siecle, Cageir d'Asie Centrale // №o 3-4 (1997), pp. 229 - 250; Yusupova M.A. K voprosu formirovaniya i tipologii memorial'no-kul'tovih kompleksov Buxarskogo oazisa XV-XVII vv. // Transoksiana. Moskva. 2004. S. 265-273; and others.
Among such - Shams ad-din Kulol mausoleum in Shahrisabz (12x10,5m with 7,5x7,5m hall)- who was a spiritual mentor of Temur and his father Amir Taraghay. To this building with an elegant portal entrance and blue dome atop a tall drum nearly identical in architecture mausoleum of Gumbazi Sayidon was adjoined in 14th -15th centuries.
Nur ad-din Basir mausoleum constructed in 1371-72 within the fortress of Samarkand -dedicated to a distinguished healer and clairvoyant. This building was demolished in 19th century. Based upon historical photographs, schemes and a painting by Vereshagin, created before the destruction of the monument, it was a one-chamber building of centric composition with blue spherical-conic dome perched atop high cylindrical drum with large epigraphic decorum.
Nur ad-din Basir mausoleum in Samarkand.
1. Photo 1871-72. Photo by - digital file from Part 1, vol. 2, pl. 129, no. 310. General view from the south. 1371-1372. Turkestan album. US Library of Congress. Washington. 2.
Painting by V. Vereshchagin, 1869-1870. View of the old city from the fortress from the roof of
the mausoleum.
Ruhabad mausoleum 1880s - of a famous Sufi Burhan ad-Din Sagarji. It was a square in plan building with centric composition with a moderately sized portal entrance crowned by a tall spherical-conic dome atop a ribbed drum.
Anbar-bibi mausoleum built on the boundary of 14-15th centuries within the complex of her spouse Zangi-ata near Tashkent also represents a one-chamber portal-domed construction with a dome set above a high drum. This mausoleum is very popular among female pilgrims nowadays.
Anbar-bibi mausoleum near Tashkent. Boundary of 14-15th century. 1. Drawings - incision, side façade (according to L. Man'kovskaya). 2. General view (Photo 2010 by M. Abbasova-Yusupova).
Second type - Two-chamber khanaqah-mausoleums. They were erected mainly instead of expired memorial buildings within already formed ancient Sufi complexes above the burial sites of the esteemed Sufi figure. Such buildings represented a two-domed and two-chamber constructions, elongated along the longitudal axis. This chain of structures included: a moderate size portal, gala khanaqah hall and a smaller mausoleum chamber. Khanaqah frequently combined the functions of the memorial mosque-ziyarathana. Lavishly carved wooden, stone or majolica faced tombstone was raised in gurhana (crypt) - chamber with a tomb or above it.
Mausoleum-khanaqah of Zangi-ata (deceased in 1258 r.) near Tashkent - of Sufi of the Yassaviya teaching, hermit and a healer of the ill was constructed (according to the legend) by the order of Amir Temur in 1390s in the ancient multi-court complex. Ziarathana-khanaqah (6,2x6,2m) and gurhana (3,71x3,71m) both are roofed with a dome perched upon a high drum.
Mausoleum-khanaqah of Zangi-ata near Tashkent. 1390-s. 1. Plan of the main courtyard (according to L. Man 'kovskaya). 2. The photo shows the main facade of the saint's mausoleum (Photo by M. Abbasova-Yusupova,
2011).
In the 15th century Temur's grandson - Ulugbek has added to the mausoleum-khanaqah a richly ornamented entrance portal and from the east - domed hall - halimhana5. During the restoration of 1887-88 domes were covered with sheet metal work, small decorated minarets were supplied, which in its place has distorted the original image of the building.
Mausoleum of Zangi-ata. 1. Drawings - plan and section (according to L. Man'kovskaya). 2. Rearfacade (Photo by M. Abbasova-Yusupova, 2013).
5Bulatova V. A., Mankovskaya L. Yu. Architectural monuments of Tashkent. Tashkent, 1983. P. 76.
Mausoleum-khanaqah of Sayf ad-din Bokharzi in Bukhara — sheikh of the Qubraviya teaching (deceased in the beg. of the 13 th) was reconstructed and enlarged on the boundary of the 14th- 15th centuries instead of the ancient two-chamber building6. In 16th century its' main façade was erected as a monumental entrance portal with flanks of two guldasta semi-protruding towers. A mausoleum of a Mongol khan Buyan Kuli was built in 1360 (at the feet) near the mausoleum of the saint.
Khanqah mausoleum of Sayf ad-Din Boharzi in Bukhara. 1. Plan and 2. Façade (Archive of FAI, HA (m), C-48 № 1152; M-23 № 1172)7 3. The photo shows a general view (Photo by M.
Abbasova-Yusupova, 2009).
g =73cm
Mausoleum of Sheikh Musliheddin in Hudjand. 12-13th, 14th and 15th centuries.
1. General view (Photo 2020 by M. Abbasova-Yusupova).
2. Plan on a modular grid (according to S. Khmelnitsky)8.
Mausoleum of Sheikh Musliheddin in Hudjand - Sufi, poet and a ruler of the city was built probably in 1390s by the order of Amir Temur9 instead of the mausoleum dating to the beginning of the 13 th century.
6 Chepovich O.D. Buxarskie dokumenti XIV veka. Tashkent, 1965. P. 166-168. Ibragimov N. Ibn Battuta i yego puteshestviya po Sredney Azii. M, 1988. P. 61.
7 Archive of FAI (Archive of the Fine Arts Institute under the Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences)
8 Xmel'niskiy S.G. Mavzoley Sheyha Muslihiddina. Varorud, 2002.
9Tursunova G.N. Osnovnie etapi deyatel'nosti Amir Temura (1360-1405 gg.). Avtoreferat diss. na soiskanie uchenoy stepeni kand. ist. nauk. Xudjand-2006; Yazdiy Sharafuddin Ali. Zafarnoma. Tashkent, 1997. P. 129.
Preceding researchers10 of this building have identified three stages of its' construction - 12-13th, 14th and 15 th centuries and have established that it was a two-domed building (23,5 x 19 m) with mausoleum and khanaqah-hall. In 15th century during the reign of Ulugbek, mausoleum was beautified with a décor and in 16th century new dome was set above the hall of the khanaqah. Building was capitally restored in 1999 and 2006.
Third type - large multi-chamber memorial building-complexes with gigantic portal entrances.
On the boundary of the 14-15th centuries Amir Temur has built two unique gigantic building-conglomerates. He wished to combine in these behemoths many functions of the memorial-cult complexes, which historically gradually formed elsewhere during centuries and decades around the inner courtyard. In his conglomerate-buildings built simultaneously according to a proj ect (except for the Guri Amir complex) all the required premises were constructed embracing the central gala hall or a small inner courtyard. One could enter through the enormous portal entrance occupying the entire façade of the building.
This is a memorial building-complex of Doru Saodat in Shahrisabz - a necropolis of Temurids dynasty. In 1380 Temur's son Jahangir was deposited there and a sarcophagus was set ready for Sahibkiran himself. Construction (52,4 x 71,6m) has embraced an inner courtyard (28,8 x 28,2 m.), surrounded by a number of premises along the perimeter. The entrance portal was of such grate scale (with a width of the entrance arch - 20,3m) that within one of its' pylons a pillar-type tall mausoleum of Jahangir was placed. This mausoleum, covered with a marquee-type conical cupola is nowadays the only remnant segment of this building-mammoth.
Cyclopic mausoleum-khanaqah of Hoja Ahmad in Turkestan (town of Yassi) was constructed (1389-1399) by Amir Temur above the tomb of the esteemed Sufi (deceased in 11661167) - the founder of Yassaviya Sufi teaching, widely spread among the nomad population of Central Asia.
Mausoleum-khanaqah of Hoja Ahmad Yassaviy in Turkestan. 1389 -1399. 1. General view (Photo 2016 by M. Abbasova-Yusupova); 2. Plan (according to B.T.
Tuyakbaeva)11.
Vast (46,5x 65,5m) ritual hall roofed with a largest in Central Asia 18m in diameter cupola was distinguished as well as an adjacent mausoleum of a saint. Multi-chamber building included
10 Smolik Julius. Die timuridischen Baudenkmäler in Samarkand aus der Zeit Tamerlans. Wien 1929. S.43, Abb.92; Xmel'niskiy S.G. Mavzoley Sheyha Muslihiddina. Varorud, 2002.
11 Tuyakbaeva B.T. Epigraphic decoration of the architectural complex of Ahmed Yasawi. Alma-ata, 1989. p.14.
a standard set of premises placed regularly in Sufi complexes around the shady courtyard. But in this building the entire courtyard was covered with a dome and transformed into a ritual hall with over 30 premises set along the perimeter around it in two levels. Eight two storied corridors leading to all other chambers except the mausoleum split the entire building into 8 constructive independent blocks. This scheme according to A.A. Shishkin12, turned out to be an ingenious solution guaranteeing the stability and resistance of the building against earthquakes.
Guri Amir complex in Samarkand had appeared in the end of the 14th century when Amir Temur has constructed two buildings for his grandson - Muhammad Sultan. One of these constructions was a khanaqah and the second - a madrassah erected on two sides of the square-shape courtyard. After his grandson has expired Sahibkiran in 1404 from the third side of that courtyard has built an astonishing mausoleum for him. It was richly ornamented with gild, semiprecious stones and majolica. According to Temur's intent mausoleums of Sufi-mentors Nur ad-din Basir and Burhan ad-Din Sagarji, as well as his grandson's mausoleum were placed along one axis. This mausoleum was intended to be turned into a focal segment of an enormous building - Samarkand necropolis of Temurids. Necropolis was planned to be adjacent from the west to the mausoleum of Muhammad Sultan. The construction efforts have already begun with an inner courtyard composition reminiscent the outlay of complex buildings in Shahrisabz and Yassi. Alas, this design of Amir Temur was not destined to come true due to his demise. The only remnant parts of uncompleted behemoth building that have sustained till our days are adjacent to the mausoleum pylons of the gigantic portal and foundations of several premises.
Guri Amir Complex in Samarkand. 1. An unfinished large portal on the side western facade. 2. The scheme of mutual arrangement of the complex with the mausoleum of Guri Amir and the mausoleum of Nur ad-Din Basir. Reconstruction. The mausoleum of Temur's grandson has remained in better shape, named subsequently as Guri Amir because Sahibkiran himself along with his main mentor - Sufi Said Baraka and another Sufi Sheikh, as well as his sons and grandchildren were buried here. Tombs of two Sufi mentors located in this building as well as a tomb of Islamic saint Hazrati Imam in Doru Saodat building in Shahrisabz attract pilgrims and signify indirectly their cult nature.
12 Nurmuxammedov N. Mavzoley Xodji Axmeda Yasevi. Almati, 1980. P. 20.
Among the reviewed third type buildings, the khanaqah-mausoleum of Yassaviy has been nearly entirely preserved. Dynastical necropolises of Temurids in Shahrisabz and Samarkand have reached us in fragments and conceal a number of unidentified and controversial questions. Such enormous building-giants erected in highly seismic region of Mavarannahr with old fashion dome-supportive constructions were prone to destruction and did not spread further.
These three building-giants of Amir Temur remain as unchallenged unique experiments on the boundary of 14th -15th centuries in the architectural heritage of Central Asia.
