CC BY
14PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCES
MASTERING THE FORMS OF MEANINGFUL REFLEXION AT PRIMARY SCHOOL AGE
Zak A.
Leading Researcher, Psychological Institute RAE, Moscow, Russia
Abstract
The article describes the main characteristics of formal and meaningful cognitive reflection, reveals the features of a special experimental situation for the study and diagnosis of types of reflection, presents four kinds of search tasks of non-educational content, describes three forms of meaningful reflection. For the first time, the author describes the development of three forms of meaningful reflection during the period of education of children in primary school.
Keywords: cognitive meaningful reflection, cognitive formal reflection, forms of meaningful reflection, search tasks, non-educational content, age dynamics, junior schoolchildren.
1. Introduction
According to the concept proposed by VV Da-vydov (see, for example, [3]) and experimentally worked out by us (see, for example, [5]), the development of thinking in younger children consists in the qualitative enrichment of the mental activity of children, in the acquisition of new thinking abilities. The fact is that along with the approach to solving problems that they used in preschool childhood - it can be conventionally called practical-performing, they form a new approach to solving problems - theoretical and research.
In the first case, the child's activity in solving a problem is reduced mainly to achieving the required result and to performing only practical actions. There is no study of the conditions of the problem as a special cognitive activity. Because of this, the conditions do not distinguish between essential and insignificant data relationships, the decision is made by trial and error, it is not entirely planned, and the mode of action is either not realized at all, or is only realized from the outside ("what needs to be done").
In the second case, on the contrary, the child's activity is not limited only to the achievement of the required result, but includes an independent stage in the study of the conditions of the tasks with the help of special cognitive actions. This leads to the separation of essential relations from insignificant ones and to the isolation of the principle of constructing the proposed tasks, the method of action is recognized as related to this principle, the solution is planned as a whole and occurs without trial and error as a conclusion from the correlation of the selected principle with these conditions.
The proposition that the methods of mental activity in solving problems are formed in children, mainly in the course of schooling, is fundamentally for Russian psychology. VV Davydov noted in this regard: "In the process of education and training, each individual person appropriates for himself, transforms into the forms of his own activity those means and ways of thinking that were created by society in the corresponding historical epoch" [3, p. 247].
Assimilating knowledge in various academic disciplines, the child simultaneously masters the methods
of cognition, methods of thinking aimed at acquiring knowledge. those. he forms cognitive actions, with which this knowledge was developed. Therefore, it is advisable to consider the level of development of thinking in schoolchildren from the point of view of which cognitive actions and to what extent they have mastered. For this, it is necessary to know the features of different methods of cognition, empirical and theoretical, which are comprehensively characterized in works on the theory of cognition.
The empirical method of cognition is associated, as V.V. Davydov notes, with the formal generalization of objects, i.e. with the emphasis in them of the formally general, external, inessential. This type of generalization is based on the comparison of individual concrete objects according to their external characteristics. Such a generalization is sufficient to distinguish classes of objects according to similar features, to draw up an appropriate classification and to use the latter for the purpose of identifying specific objects.
In contrast to this, the theoretical method of cognition is associated with a meaningful generalization of objects, with the isolation in them of an intrinsic relationship that is essentially common. This type of generalization is based on analysis as a cognitive action aimed at revealing a single initial basis for the observed variety of phenomena.
The concept of V.V.Davydov also developed meaningful ideas about two types of reflection. It is shown, in particular, that cognitive reflection (that is, when a person turns to his own method of action for its consideration when solving a problem) within the framework of the empirical method of solution is carried out as a formal action, within the framework of the theoretical method - as a meaningful action.
The fact is that the consideration of a method of action can be carried out by a person in order to find out what operations need to be performed, what exactly needs to be done in order to obtain the required result. In this case, only external, directly observable features of the performed actions are considered, only those specific operations that led to these changes in the studied object are taken into account. Thus, a person is aware in his actions only of their visual characteristics and can summarize them rationally. This level of consideration
of the method of action is characterized by the awareness of its features, given in direct perception, and is qualified as external, or formal reflection, since it reflects the dependence of the method of action on random and individual conditions for its implementation.
In this case, with the successful solution of problems that have an objectively general rinciple of construction, a person, when focusing on the external similarity of the features of the conditions of the tasks, can group them formally, and when focusing on the external difference of these features, he can refuse to group tasks, considering them different.
Consideration of a method of action can also be carried out in order to find out why a given action is performed in such a way, and not otherwise, what is the reason that the performed action led to those and not other changes of the object under study, what is in this action the basis for its successful implementation in different conditions (in particular, when solving different problems).
With this consideration of his actions, a person realizes the way of his actions, relies on his hidden, not directly observable characteristics, takes into account his actions "from the inside", which is outside the zone of actual perception. The peculiarities of this situation allow a person to generalize their actions rationally. This level of consideration of the method of action is qualified as internal, or meaningful reflection, since it reflects the dependence of the method on the necessary and essential conditions for its implementation.
In this case, with the successful solution of problems that have a general principle of construction, a person, when focusing on the inner, essential unity of these tasks, can group them meaningfully. Therefore, a person's understanding of the proposed tasks as belonging to the same type, which is based on the generalization of the method for solving them, can serve as an indicator of the awareness of the connection between the method and essential relations, i.e. an indicator of the implementation of meaningful reflection.
The meaning of meaningful reflection as a cognitive action consists not only in a person's clarification of his knowledge, in clarifying their foundations, but also in establishing how certain knowledge and ideas were developed, how they relate to the necessary conditions for the existence of the object under study, to its actual nature.
2. Materials and methods
To determine the type of reflection in solving problems, we have developed a general scheme for constructing an experimental situation [6,7]. In its first part, the subject was asked to solve three problems. They are selected according to specific requirements. First, the proposed tasks should relate not to one, but to two classes (or subclasses), which means that two tasks are solved on the basis of one principle, and one on the basis of the other. Secondly, the conditions of all tasks must differ in external, directly perceived features.
In the second part of the considered experimental situation, in the case of a successful solution of all the proposed problems, it was proposed to group them. The nature of the grouping determined the presence and absence of meaningful, internal reflection in their solution.
If the common (typical) way of solving them, characterizing their belonging to the same class (subclass), was taken as the basis for grouping tasks, then this indicated that in the process of solving problems, meaningful reflection was carried out.
If the external similarity of the features of their conditions was taken as the basis for the grouping of tasks, then, consequently, meaningful reflection - as an understanding of the connection of actions with essential relations and generalization on their basis of a method for solving outwardly different tasks - was absent. It should be noted that the considered scheme of constructing an experimental situation to determine the type of reflection was used in a number of studies on non-educational material [4] and on educational (mathematical) material [2, 10].
To study the age-related dynamics of meaningful reflection in younger schoolchildren, a significant number of specific methods have been developed based on the material of search problems of non-educational content. Four main types of problems were used: spatial combinatorial, labyrinth problems "with rules", operational-logical and plot-logical [6].
Spatial combinatorial problems are situations when, in the plane of a certain playing field, one arrangement of objects (objects, words, geometric figures, signs) must be transformed into their other arrangement in the required number of actions. Tasks of this kind can be solved in a substantively effective plan (by operating with objects) and in a visual-figurative plan (by operating with images of objects).
For example, the N Р M К (the initial arrangement of objects) should be rearranged (in the subject or figurative plan, depending on the conditions of the experiment) in two actions so as to obtain К M Р N (the required location). For one action, the mutual permutation (exchange of places) of any two letters in the original position is taken. Perhaps such a solution: the first action changes the letters N and K, - it turns out K P M N; the second action changes the letters M and Р, - the required arrangement is obtained - К M Р N.
The peculiarity of labyrinth problems "with rules" (as opposed to labyrinths without rules, that is, visual labyrinths) is that displacements (in subject or figurative terms) from the starting point to the final point must obey a certain conditional rule, in contrast to visual labyrinths, where movements are based only on direct visual perception of dead ends and free passages.
For example, in a maze with letters and numbers in squares, you need to find a path of two lines between squares A1 and B2.
The move rule is as follows. If a line connects squares where there is the same letter or number, then you can move along such a line, for example, between squares A1 and B1, B1 and B2. If a line connects squares where there is no identical letter or number, then you cannot move along such a line, for example, between squares A1 and B2, B1 and C2. Perhaps such a solution to this problem. The first part of the desired path will be from A1 to B1, since these squares have
the same number. The second part of the path will be between squares B1 and B2, since these squares have the same letter).
In operational-logical problems, the search for the required result is associated with the performance of relatively simple logical operations, in particular, comparison and abstraction. For example, for a free cell in a square, you need to choose one combination of two letters: BP, HC or HP (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Task condition
The solution to this problem is to choose a combination of HC.
In plot-logical tasks, it is required, on the basis of information about the properties and relationships of people and things, to build a conclusion and draw a conclusion about the presence or absence of certain properties and relationships in the people and things presented in the tasks.
Various types of plot logic problems were used in the research.
1. "Nadya, Vera, Galya and Lyuba planted fruit trees: someone planted an apple tree, someone a pear, someone a plum, someone a cherry. What tree did Nadya plant if Vera did not plant cherries, Galya did not plant apple and cherry trees, and Lyuba did not plant cherries, apple trees and plums? " (Answer: Nadia planted a cherry).
2. "Vova and Gena sculpted balls from plasticine. They acted equally quickly and finished at the same time. Vova sculpted more balls than Gena. Which of the boys started acting earlier? " (Answer: Vova).
3. "Borya, Lida, Seva, Galya and Sasha wrote by word:
SQUIRREL FOX
BEAR HEDGEHOG WOLF
Bori's word is higher than Lida's. Seva's word is to the right of Bori's. Seva's word is lower than Gali's. Sasha's word is closer to Lida's than to Seva's. What word did Lida write? " (Answer: the word "hedgehog").
4. "Arkady is Igor's brother. Igor is Larisa's father. Larisa is Oleg's sister. Oleg is the son of Yegor. Who may be Yegor Arkady? " (Answer: brother).
5."Katya, Nina, Liza and Natasha embroidered scarves. Katya embroidered more scarves than Nina, Liza less than Natasha, Natasha less than Nina. Who embroidered scarves least of all? " (Answer: Lisa).
6. "Vanya, Alik, Vitya and Vadim were traveling by public transport: two boys - by tram, two - by trolleybus. Vanya and Alik, Alik and Vadim were traveling by different types of transport, Vitya was riding a trolleybus. What was Vadim driving? " (Answer: by tram).
6."Misha and Alla were arranging cubes with numbers and letters. First, Misha put the cubes like this - 8246, and then rearranged them differently - 2684. Alla first put the cubes like this - RNVT, and then rearranged them in the same way as Misha. What did Alla do? "(Answer: NTRV).
7. "On the blackboard, they wrote the words with crayons:
DIGGER CELEBRATED HISTORY DIMAND FIGURE
Blue and green have the same first letter, red and yellow have the second, purple and green have the last, blue and red have the third. What color is the word HISTORY? " (The answer is "yellow").
8. "Many years ago Misha was a little younger than Petya this year. In many years, Petya will be a little older than Igor's birthday this year. Which of the boys is the youngest? "(Answer: Petya).
9. "In the garden, it was necessary to water the apple trees, pears, plums and cherries. Some of the trees wanted to water at 6 o'clock in the morning, some at 7,
some at 8 and some at 9. First, they thought about watering either the apple trees, or at 9 o'clock in the morning. Then they thought about watering either at 9 o'clock, or draining. Then they thought about watering, either plums, or at 8 in the morning. After all, they thought about watering either pears, or at 9 am. What time did you want to water the cherries? " (The answer is at 9 am).
Numerous studies using the tasks of the non-educational content of the noted genera [7] made it possible to distinguish three forms of the implementation of meaningful reflection, depending on the complexity of orientation in the conditions of the tasks.
When solving problems in a substantively effective plan (that is, by operating with objects), the original form of meaningful reflection is realized, when solving in a visual - figurative plan (that is, by operating with images of objects) a developed form, when solving in verbal-sign plan (that is, by operating with the designations of objects) - the ultimate form.
3. Results
Large-scale surveys [5] based on a variety of techniques designed to determine the type of reflection as an awareness of the connection between the method of action or with the existing conditions of the task (formal reflection) or with essential relationships (meaningful reflection), allowed us to obtain data characterizing three types of age dynamics of forms of meaningful reflection.
The first type is associated with the development of the original form of meaningful reflection, that is, when solving problems in a substantively effective plan. So, after the first year of study, meaningful reflection is carried out on average by 18.4% of children, after the second year - 27.2% of children, after the third year - 43.7% of children, after the fourth year - 58.9% of children.
The second type is associated with the development of a developed form of meaningful reflection, that is, when solving problems in a visual-figurative plan. So, after the first year of study, meaningful reflection is carried out on average by 8.3% of children, after the second year - 17.1% of children, after the third year -28.5% of children, after the fourth year - 39.6% of children.
The third type is associated with the development of the ultimate form of meaningful reflection, that is, when solving problems in a verbal-symbolic plan (in particular, when solving operational-logical and plot-logical problems). So, after the first year of study, meaningful reflection is carried out on average by 3.2% of children, after the second year - 12.1% of children, after the third year - 23.8% of children, after the fourth year - 28.7% of children.
4. Conclusion
Thus, over the full period of study in primary school, the initial form of meaningful reflection is mastered by most of the younger schoolchildren. A minority of children, approximately one third, master the developed form of meaningful reflection, and the smallest number of children, approximately one quarter, manage to master the ultimate form of meaningful reflection.
It should be noted that, as our studies with adolescents and high school students have shown [7]), most schoolchildren master the developed form of meaningful reflection after six years of study, and the ultimate form only after nine years.
The noted characteristics of the three types of age dynamics in the development of forms of meaningful reflection by younger schoolchildren make it possible to assess the level of formation of meaningful reflection of each child as corresponding or not corresponding to the achievements of the majority of children.
To increase the level of formation of meaningful reflection, it is advisable to organize regular developmental classes for solving search problems of various kinds (spatial-combinatorial, operational-logical and plot-logical) within the framework of the "Intellectics program" [8, 9]. The practice of conducting such developmental classes in a number of schools in Russia has shown the significant effectiveness of this program [1].
References
1. Astashkina N.A. The course "Intellectics" is a technology for the development of the mental abilities of younger schoolchildren / N.A. Astashkina [Elec-tronnyi resource]. - Access mode: http://nsportal.ru/na-chalnaya-shkola/obshchepedagogicheskie-tekhnologii/2013/03/14/kurs -intellektika-tekhnologiya [in Russian].
2. Guruzhapov V.A. K To a question of subject diagnostics of theoretical thinking of children in the developing training // Psychological science and education, 1997, no. 4, pp. 103-107. [in Russian].
3. Davydov V. V. Teoriya razvivayushchego obucheniya [The theory of the developing training]. Moscow: Intor, 1996. 497 p. [in Russian].
4. Ermakov S.S. Diagnosis of the level of development of theoretical thinking in intellectually gifted younger students // Psychological Science and Education, 2014, no. 2. - pp. 116 - 128. [in Russian].
5. Zak A.Z. Differences in the mental activity of younger students. - M.: Mos. Psychol. social un-t, 2000. 174 p. [in Russian].
6. Zak A.Z. Diagnostics of distinctions in thinking of younger school students. Moscow: Genezis, 2007. 159 p. [in Russian].
7. Zak A. Z. Development and diagnostics of thinking of teenagers and high school students. Moscow: Obninsk: IG-SOCIN, 2010. 350 p. [in Russian].
8. Zak A. Z. Intellectic. A systematic course for the formation of universal educational actions in grades 1- 4: Methodological guidance. - M.: Intellekt - center, 2013. 72 p. [in Russian].
9. Zak A.Z. Intellectic. A systematic course for the formation of universal educational actions in grades 1 -4. Teacher's book (supplement to the methodological guide, made on CD). - M.: Intellect - center, 2013. [in Russian].
10. Sokolov V.L. Experience of diagnostics of the analysis and reflection as universal educational actions //Psychological science and education, 2012, no. 3. pp. 29- 33. [in Russian].
