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58INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL VOLUME 1 ISSUE 6 UIF-2022: 8.2 | ISSN: 2181-3337
MAIN LINGUISTIC AND STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF CONJUNCTIONS IN
MODERN ENGLISH Khumora Teshaboyeva Numanjanovna
2nd year Master's degree student Linguistics (English) majorFergana State University
Dilshoda Mirzayeva Ikromjonovna
Head of English Department, Phd Fergana State University https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7165531
Abstract. This paper contains an in-depth study of conjunctions, including their meaning, types as well as uses or functions in Modern English. Conjunctions are words that link or connect two words, phrases, clauses or sentences together, either in speech or in writing. Conjunctions are one of the eight parts of speech in English, according to the traditional grammar. Apart from the coordinating, subordinating and correlative types, the author has also researched into other kinds of conjunctions that can be of great interest to the reader.
Keywords: conjunctions, parts of speech, simple conjunctions, derivative conjunctions, compound conjunctions, complex conjunctions, copulative conjunctions, disjunctive conjunctions, adversative conjunctions, causative conjunctions.
ОСНОВНЫЕ ЛИНГВО-СТРУКТУРНЫЕ ОСОБЕННОСТИ СОЮЗОВ В СОВРЕМЕННОМ АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ
Аннотация. Эта статья содержит углубленное исследование союзов, включая их значение, типы, а также использование или функции в современном английском языке. Союзы - это слова, которые связывают или соединяют два слова, фразы, предложения или предложения вместе в устной или письменной форме. Согласно традиционной грамматике союзы являются одной из восьми частей речи в английском языке. Помимо сочинительного, подчинительного и соотносительного типов, автор исследовал и другие виды союзов, которые могут представлять большой интерес для читателя.
Ключевые слова: союзы, части речи, простые союзы, производные союзы, сложные союзы, сложные союзы, копулятивные союзы, дизъюнктивные союзы, противительные союзы, причинные союзы.
INTRODUCTION
In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated on the basis of the three criteria: "semantic", "formal", "functional". In accordance with the described criteria words are divided into notional and functional, which are further subdivided into smaller groups and which reflects their division in the earlier grammatical tradition into changeable and unchangeable. Eight parts of speech are usually identified: nouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, verbs, and interjections. Most of the major language groups spoken today, notably the Indo-European languages and Semitic languages, use almost the identical categories.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
There are lots of definitions of conjunction. For example, in the dictionaries and encyclopedias one may find the following explanations:
1) the words that connect sentences, clauses, phrases, or words, and sometimes paragraph s [3; 198];
2) an uninflected linguistic form that joins together sentences, clauses, phrases, or words [ 4; 435];
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3) a part of speech which denotes connections between objects and phenomena. It connects parts of the sentence, clauses, and sentences [2; 213].
RESULTS
According to their morphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups:
❖ simple conjunctions (and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where, when/ etc);
❖ derivative conjunctions (until, unless, etc.);
❖ compound conjunctions (however, whereas, wherever, etc.);
❖ composite conjunctions (as well as, as long as, in case, for fear (that), on the ground that, for the reason that, etc.);
❖ some conjunctions are used in pairs - correlative conjunctions: both ... and, either ... or, not only ... but (also), neither ... nor, whether ... or.
As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes:
1) coordinating conjunctions - join coordinate clauses in a compound sentence, or homogeneous parts in a simple sentence, or homogeneous subordinate clauses in a complex sentence, or independent sentence;
2) subordinating conjunctions - join a subordinate or independent clause to a principle clause, or adverbial modifier to the predicate in a simple sentence, or sometimes they join homogeneous parts.
The meaning of conjunctions is closely connected with the relations they express. According to their meaning the classes of coordinating conjunctions correspond to different types of compound sentences. Kaushanska [2; 213] defined four different kinds of coordinating conjunctions:
copulative conjunctions - and, nor, as well as, both ...and, not only... but, neither nor -denote that one statement or fact is simply added to another;
disjunctive conjunctions - or, either or, or else, else - offer some more choice between the statement and another;
adversative conjunctions - but, while, whereas - show that one statement or fact is contrasted with a set against another;
causative-consecutive conjunctions - so, for - denote consequence, result or reason.
There are so many concerns about the classification of conjunctions by several linguists. According to Aarts, we treat coordination as an instance of parataxis, a term derived from Greek, meaning "syntactic side-by-side arrangement". Furthermore, all cases of coordination that involve an overt coordinator are referred to as syndetic coordination. Where there is no overt coordinator, it is referred to as asyndetic coordination. Asyndetic coordination is exemplified as follows: (a) She is honest, hardworking, intelligent. (b) We need bananas, apples, oranges, pears. (c) John laughed, Tom chuckled, Chris grinned. Coordinating conjunctions include: and, nor, but, and or. Sentential examples: (4) (a) I bought a computer and a keyboard. (b) When his wife left him, he did not bother nor went to plead for her return. (c) She is poor but she is happy. (d) The books are on the table or in the cupboard.
According to Murthy (215), coordinating conjunctions are divided into three kinds. They
are:
❖ Cumulative or Copulative Conjunctions
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• Adversative Conjunctions and
• Disjunctive or Alternative Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions are words which are used to link subordinate clauses with the main clauses in a complex sentence. They are conjunctions used to join clauses of unequal rank. In other words, they are used to join an independent or main (principal) clause with a dependent (subordinate) one that relies on the main clause for meaning and relevance. This means that main clauses can stand alone and do not depend on subordinate clauses while subordinate clauses cannot stand alone. As Aarts notes, "another way of putting this is to say that subordination is a type of hypotaxis, a Greek term that means originally „syntactic underneath arrangement". This means that a subordinating conjunction causes the clause it appears in to become dependent, and that it will only be a sentence fragment unless it is joined to an independent clause. Simply, subordinating conjunctions are called subordinators and the art of using a subordinator to join two clauses together is referred to as subordination. According to Quirk and Greenbaum, subordination is a non-symmetrical relation, holding between two clauses in such a way that one is a constituent or part of the other. Also according to Huddleston, subordination in contrast with coordination, involves inequality, that is, a relation between a dependent (the subordinate element) and a head (the superordinate one). A subordinating conjunction can appear at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. According to Sahebkeir & Aidinlou, subordinating conjunctions are also known as transitional conjunctions.
They include: after, because, if, that, though, although, till, before, unless, as, when, where, while, than, whether, in order that, nevertheless, etc. Sentential examples: (a) He came after I had finished my work. (b) He was sacked from office because of his stance against corruption. (c) I wonder if he will ever change. (d) He thinks that we will agree. (e) Though he is your brother, you should not trouble him like that.
Correlative conjunctions are link words that consist of two parts and are used to give emphasis to the combinations of two structures that are balanced (Sahebkeir & Aidinlou). They are regarded as team conjunctions because they are used in pairs. They get their name from the fact that they work together (co-) and relate one sentence element to another. Correlative conjunctions are more similar to coordinating conjunctions in that the sentence fragments they connect are fairly equal. Lester notes that correlative conjunctions are very similar to coordinating conjunctions except that they are two-part conjunctions.
DISCUSSION
They include: either...or, neither...nor, both...and, as many...as, whether...or, not only...but also, such.that, so.that, hardly ...when, scarcely...when, no sooner.than, not... but, etc. Sentential examples: (a) I want either pizza or hamburger. (b) Neither a borrower nor a lender be. (c) I have both dog and cat. (d) There are as many curtains as there are windows. (e) He was not sure whether he was losing or winning. (f) She was not only mean but also rude.
Compound conjunctions. These are groups of words that are used as conjunctions. Quirk and Greenbaum regard such groups of words as compound subordinators. They are compound items which act, to various degrees, like a single conjunction. Such groups of words end with obligatory "that", e.g. in order that, in that, except that, on condition that, so that, such that, etc. while some others have optional "that", e.g. now (that), provided (that), supposing (that), seeing (that), considering (that), etc. Furthermore, Omosowone and Akindolire regard compound
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conjunctions as semi-coordinating conjunctions because they link elements together. More examples are: as well as, as much as, rather than, etc. Other examples include: as though, in as much as, as soon as, etc. Sentential examples: (a) He applied for the job in order that he might help his father. (b) I can lend you the money on condition that you repay me next month. (c) I shall give you the job provided that you know how to type. (d) The pastor as well as his members received the gift of the Holy Spirit.
CONCLUSIONS
In linguistics conjunctions belong to a closed word class [1; 25], a word class to which no new items can normally be added, and that usually contains a relatively small number of items. The closed class may get new items through the usual means such as compounding, derivation, coining, borrowing, etc. But the change takes much more time. The closed class is normally viewed as part of the core language and is not expected to change. So conjunction is a functional part of speech that connects two words, phrases, or clauses together. This definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a "conjunction" should be defined for each language. In general, a conjunction is an invariable grammatical particle, and it may or may not stand between the items it conjoins.
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