CC BY
60УДК 81'373.47
Podgaets Anna Markovna
Ph.D. (Philology),
Department of Linguistics and Translation,
Perm State University
614990, Perm, ul. Bukireva, 15.
Те1: 89128886552
E-mail: [email protected]
Solovyova Elizaveta Igorevna
Department of Linguistics and Translation, Perm State University Tel.: 89824378622 E-mail: [email protected]
LEXICAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE FOREIGN INVASIONS IN THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH
The paper researches the linguistic consequences on the English word stock after the intruders from overseas conquered the British Isles. Assuming the various nature of the language reflection the study explores the results of the cultural divergences.
Key words: foreign conquest, linguistic consequences, invasion, borrowing, loan words, doublets, etymology, lexicon.
Introduction
English as a West Germanic language tracing back to the Indo-European language family, is now the first language of about 400 million people, the second language for over 400 million speakers and another foreign tongue for over 700 million, thus meaning that every 6th person in the world speaks English.
Modern English, a product of the longlasting historical development has gone through different changes as a structured system caused by either intra linguistic or extra-linguistic factors. The evolution of the linguistic features depends on a number of specific reasons that evoke and stimulate the changes in vocabulary, morphology and syntax, phonetics, orthography.
The current research deals with the impact of five main conquests on the English lexicon and studies the aftereffects of the foreign invasions on the linguistic situation. The Celtic, the Roman, the Anglo-Saxon, the Danish, the Norman conquests are commonly considered the main source of vocabulary increase, and each conquest has specifically affected the original language. Therefore, the aims set in this paper focus on:
- thorough study of the borrowed words from every language conqueror to identify the field, the main sphere of life together with the reasons why exactly each area has become predominant;
- systematizing the found data by analyzing and classifying the loan words as well as the productive affixes in modern English.
Before presenting the analysis of the material studied, it is necessary to define the term borrowing and its role in lexicon development. A borrowing or a loan word is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the native language [Arnold, 1986, p. 252]. Borrowings enter a language due to various historical reasons, including social, economic and political. Some borrowed words depict the items and the concepts that were not yet present in society and, consequently, in the language. Other loan words enter the language gradually through the communication with the people who speak other languages. For the most part, these contacts have always been trade, military conflicts,
household or family and even art related. According to the calculations, there are around 70 per cent of words in English that were once borrowed from several of different languages [Ibid, p. 253].
Loan words usually have more than one classification scheme. They can be distinguished by various criteria, such as: the source of borrowing (the language from which the word was borrowed into English); the origin of borrowing (the language to which the origin of a word can be traced); the degree of assimilation; the aspect which is borrowed.
In the present research the English word-stock has been analyzed and classified according to the entries from the source languages, thus making up five sections: Celtic, Latin, Anglo-Saxon, Old Norse and Norman-French. With the view on the degree of assimilation following Arnold I.V, the borrowed words are split into three main parts or categories: completely assimilated, (found in all the layers of older borrowings), partially assimilated and unassimilated loan words. Considering the fact that all of the foreign conquests took place in the so-called classical era and the Middle Ages, and all the borrowed words fully infiltrated English by the end of the Medieval period, a significantly larger part of them had been completely assimilated. The borrowings follow all morphological, phonetical and orthographic standards, being pretty frequent and stylistically neutral, they might occur as dominant words in different synonymic groups [Ibid, p. 256].
Though the loan words are taken from one of the conquering languages, they are modified to fit into the patterns of the receiving language. E. Haugen, who has made a huge impact in the study of borrowings, suggests that foreign words come into the language in three steps:
- A bilingual introduces a new word in a phonetic form close to the model. In this case monolingual can only rely on the pronunciation of the word.
- If the monolingual person or a group of people have occasion to repeat the word and take to using it, native elements of the foreign word will be substituted to fit the structure of the receiving language.
- If monolinguals continue to use the foreign word, a total or practically total substitution will be made. [Haugen, 1950, p.212].
The practical analysis of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning have changed over time is usually based on etymology, the term meaning the origin of a particular word. To check all the etymological data of the words in this work, we used The Online Etymology Dictionary created by Douglas Harper in 2000. The dictionary contains more than 30.000 words together with their origins and historical development. The access to the website is free via the link http://www.etymonline.com.
The important topic of etymology covers the so-called doublets or etymological twins, those two or more words in the same language that have differences in pronunciation but the same etymological root. Majority of these words have got similar but not identical meanings. These subtle differences contribute greatly into the richness of modern English vocabulary.
The changes a loan word has to undergo depending on the date of its penetration, are the main cause of appearance of the so-called etymological doublets [Arnold, 1986, p. 259]. In this work we will treat the doublets, which appeared in English through Old Norse due to the variation of "sh" and "sc". However, a larger part of doublets will be considered in the chapter dedicated to the Norman Conquest. Theses paired doublets show "the influence of the language or dialect systems which they passed before entering the English vocabulary" [Ibid, p. 260].
The main part
Historically the Celts come first, so our study starts with the Celtic trace in the English language. Around 10th century B.C. the first wave of the Celtic migration took place, then in 700750 B.C. the Celts began to arrive from Northern Europe.
At the beginning they were the Gaels - in the North - and then the Bryttons - in the South-West and West - in the fourth century. Since that time up to the 1st century A.D. parts of the British Isles were inhabited by the people who came to be known as great warriors, sailors, traders, farmers and craftsmen.
The Insular Celtic languages have coexisted with English for 1,500 years, making it obvious that a number of the borrowings can be found even in the Modern English. But considering the fact that majority of the ancient Celtic history did not keep up to nowadays, we can only speak about the Goidelic substrate (the hypothesis refers to the hypothesized language or languages spoken in Ireland before the Iron Age arrival of the Goidelic language). Despite the fact that the Celts were not one people but were made up of a number of tribes fighting a great deal among themselves, they had one important thing in common: their language, fundamentally the same language. The descendants are Welsh, Cornish, Gaelic, Irish called Old Celtic but the Celts maintained a high level of life, economy and culture. Their influence on the English is visible in different spheres of life, social, spiritual, material, ethical and moral. The Celtic warriors rapidly expanded their territories; they farmed, looked after the cattle, lived in small communities, were skilled metal workers, established trade routes with Europe - all of it led to a necessity of giving the names to the geographical places. Therefore, the Celtic toponyms remain today the biggest mark on the map and the English language. In order to show the influence of the Celts we offer some examples of the geographical entities, including toponyms, the names of the cities and the villages, hydronyms for a body of water, and oronyms for a mountain or a hill.
The 1st category includes the place names (cities, towns, villages) in Britain presenting the Modern English variant of the name with its Celtic origin and meaning: BealFeirsde> Belfast (ford at the sandbank), Cornovii> Cornwall (foreigners), Dumnonii> Devon (deep ones), dubh + linn> Dublin (black pool), glas cu > Glasgow (green hollow).
The second group of loanwords is oronyms: Celts >Chiltren Hills (high places), moel-bryn >Malvern (bare hill), monith > Mendip (mountain).
The last category covers hydronyms: abona > Avon (river), Derventio > Derwent (clear water), is ca > Esk (river), loch > Loch (lake).
To sum everything foresaid up, the Celts as a people did not manage to leave a big mark on the English language in the area of lexicon, apart from geographical landmarks. The Celts were the first people who explored the countryside of the British Isles, the conquest itself bore rather a discovering character. Consequently, the first geographical names were conveyed from one generation to another and had been stipulated strong enough to have survived up to modern times and Contemporary English.
In 55 B.C. a Roman army of 10,000 men crossed the Channel and invaded Britain. But the Celts rose against them and The Romans had to return to Gaul. The next year Caesar came again, the Celts were fighting bravely for their independence but Caesar's army was bigger and stronger. So the Celtic chiefs promised to pay tribute to Rome and the Romans left Britain again. Only in 43 A.D. the Romans conquered South-East part of Britain, during the reign of Emperor Claudius. The Celts did not give up easily and continued to fight back the invaders. Therefore, it took another 90 years before the whole of England and Wales was pacified, with Hadrian's Wall forming in the northern frontier of the empire.
During the period from 43 to 449 A.D. the Romans settled down to leave a decent print on the English language. To better analyze the cultural consequences of the Roman conquest, we need to distinguish between the periods for better characterization of the nature of the borrowings. Following Bahurova E.P. we accept three main periods:
• The period of continental borrowing (Before the Anglo-Saxons settled down in Britain).
Germanic tribes used to have trading relations with the Romans before any of them settled down in Britain. Even though their relationships were not always peaceful, with the time they developed into a nice partnership, the Germans joined the Roman army and started families with the Romans and by that developed their lexicon.
According to Hogg, it is estimated that about 170 lexical items were borrowed during the continental period. From these, roughly 30 per cent denote plants and animals, 20 per cent food, vessels, household items, 12 per cent buildings, building material, settlements, 12 per cent dress, 9
per cent military and legal institutions, 9 per cent commercial activities, 3 per cent miscellaneous other phenomena [Williams 1975:57 in Hogg 1992, p. 302]. The majorlexicalgroupsare:
a. Words connected with trade, including animals, plants, foods, e.g., butyrum > butter, caseus
> cheese, cerasus > cherry, moneta > monet, pondo > pound, vinum > wine;
b. Words connected with war and therefore with the process of building, e.g., campus > camp, vallus > wall, strata > street;
c. Words connected with domestic and household items, e.g., cappa > cap, discus >dish, catillus
> kettle, pulvinus > pillow, soccus > sock, tabula > table.
- The period of Celtic transmission (1st - 5th AD).
The period of Latin influence occurred during the settlement period ca. 1st AD until the end of the Roman occupation of Britain in ca. 410. Only a few loanwords remained from this period, including: portus > port, vicum > village, milia > mile, montanus > mountain;
- The period of Christianization of Britain.
It is evident, the major impact of the Romans on the English language was visible in the religious sphere. Christianity first became legal in Rome in 325, right in the time when the Romans have already settled in Britain, that's why the borrowings have been coming into the English language since the 3rd A.D up to the end of Old English in the 11th century. The impact of Christianization was so significant that we have to stream the loanwords from this period into three categories:
a. Words connected with religion and church, e.g., altus > altar, angelus > angel, apostolus > apostle, candela >candle, martyr > martyr, nonna > nun, presbyter > priest, scrinium > shrine, talentum > talent, templum > temple;
b. Words connected with education and learning, e.g., magister > master, schola > school, historia > history, grammatical > grammar;
c. Words denoting plants, herbs and trees, e.g., gingiber > ginger, lilium > lily, pinus > pine, planta > plant, rosa > rose.
Even though the mostly marked influence on English by Latin was in lexis, the structural precepts can be detected as well. It is especially seen on the example of Old English where there were defined five noun cases of Nominative, Vocative, Accusative, Genitive and Dative; a full conjugation of verbs with three genders and singular/plural number forms.
However, in the beginning of the 5th century A.D. the Romans suffered frequent attacks from the Barbarians and in 407 Roman legions had to leave the British Isles. Hardly have the Romans left Britain when in 449 A.D. Germanic tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes from Denmark and Germany began to visit the east coast. The Celtic Britons put up fierce resistance and it took over 150 years of fighting for the Anglo-Saxon invaders to take over most of England.
The Anglo-Saxons were pagans who believed in many gods and used to identify Roman gods with the names of Germanic deities; this process is called Interpretatiogermanica. The so commonly used names of the days of the week in fact are the example of this process as they have a Germanic origin. Modern English names of the week go back to the names of the German deities; moreover the analogues of the Roman gods are presented: Sunno> Sunday (Sun's day, analogue to Sol Invictus), Mona> Monday (Moon's day, analogue to Luna), TTw> Tuesday (the day of Tyr, god of war, analogue to Mars), Woden> Wednesday (the day of Odin, god of travelers and eloquence, analogue to Mercury), Eunor> Thursday (the day of Thor, god of thunder, analogue to Jupiter), FrTg> Friday the day of Frig, goddess of love, analogue to Venus), S^turn> Saturday (the day of the Roman god Saturn).
In the year 559 St Augustine sent by the Pope to convert the Anglo-Saxons in the spread of the Christianity brought important changes into the life of the people. Hundreds of churches and monasteries were built, thousands of books were written by the monks, the most famous writer from that time, Bede the Venerable, wrote his Ecclesiastical History of the English People. And it is from this book that we learned much of what had happened in the earliest centuries.
Anglo Saxon, or Old English was a complex language compared to Modern English as its nouns and pronouns were declined to 3 genders and 5 cases, besides the nouns had strong, vocalic and
weak, consonantal stem declension, the adjectives could have up to 11 forms by changing with the nouns they modified. The verbs conjugated depending on their list of categories, like gender, number, tense and person. Numerous prosaic manuscripts still keep the scholars' interest in exploring the Charters, the Psalms, the philosophical treatise, the World History, translations made under the rule of king Alfred the Great and other rich examples of Wessex literary heritage. A bright evidence of the vividness of Old English vocabulary is the famous poem "Beowulf'. Numerous studies of this heroic poem prove that the Old English language, apart from specific poetic features of the German versification tradition, was deeply based on the enormous number of synonyms and subtleties of meanings, for example, the poem displays 36 different words for the 'hero', 20 for "man', 12 for "battle" and 11 for 'ship" [The history of English, website].
As many researchers believe, it was exactly the Anglo-Saxons who set to motion the essential British culture. Therefore, majority of the words of Germanic origin that have come into the English Language are the most fundamental and commonly used words, e.g., water, house, food, night, man, wife, child, son, daughter, brother, friend, sun, moon, earth, ground, wood, field, house, home, people, family, horse, fish, farm, water, time, eyes, ears, mouth, nose, word, strong, blind, gray, green, to live, to fight, to make, to use, to love, to like, to look, to drink, to eat, to sleep, to sing, to work, to come, to go, to be, to find, to see, to look.
During our research we found it also interesting to include some information about swear words and their origins as they make up the core of the written and oral speech up to these days. As it is commonly believed, the curse words start to appear in the language right at the very basis, when the cultural traits of a particular nation are being formed. In case with the English language, the Anglo-Saxons are considered to be the first people to shape the British national character, so it is not a surprise that majority of cuss words actually have the German origin, e.g., ferzan>fart, fokken>fuck, skit >shit, turdam>turd, arsoz>arse, kunton> cunt.
With the ongoing interest to the roots of the native language the scholars estimated that about 85% of the 30,000 or so Anglo-Saxon words gradually died out under the cultural onslaught of the Vikings and the Normans, the invaders who would come in the later centuries leaving a total of only around 4,500. This represents less than 1% of modern English vocabulary [Ibid].
From 750 to 1000 the Viking raids brought another period of disruption and war. These raids were followed by the invasion of the Danes who took over northern and eastern territories of England. However, king Alfred the Great was leading a strong resistance and, in 878, a treaty between the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings established the Danelaw, splitting the country along a line roughly from London to Chester, giving the Norsemen control over the north and east and the Anglo-Saxons the south and west. Obviously, the Vikings have been known for their violent behavior and dedication to war and battles. No wonder their violent culture found its way into the English language. Nowadays in Modern English there are plenty of words borrowed from Old Norse which are connected to warfare and battles: angr> anger, deyja> die, gunn> gun, hitta> hit, kikna> kick, kvelja> kill, rannsaka> ransack, ska8a> scathe, slatra> slaughter, skirra > scream [The Scandinavian Influence on the English Language English Language Essay, 2018].
Old Norse and Old English were sister languages and shared a lot of words of the same root thanks to the origin from Common Germanic. But due to various linguistic changes, such as the first consonant shift and frequent variations of "sc" and "sh" etymological doublets appeared: scabby (ON) - shabby (OE), scar - share, screech - shriek, shirt - skirt [Arnold, 1986, p. 259].
Eventually, Old Norse started to merge into the English language and around 1000 Scandinavian words can still be found in Modern English, among them are some of the most fundamental words of everyday language, being: flat, meek, rotten, tight, odd, rugged, ugly, ill, sly, wrong, loose, happy, awkward, weak, skull, skin, leg, neck, freckle, sister, husband, fellow, wing, bull, seat, root, bloom, bag, gap, dirt, kid, link, gate, sky, egg, cake, skirt, band, bank, birth, skill, thrift, window, gap, law, trust, silver, to score, to gasp, to call, to crawl, to lift, to get, to give, to have, to take, to mistake, to want, to guess, to smile, to hug.
As the languages of the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings were pretty much similar they could easily understand each other, the closeness facilitated by the intermarriages and close social contacts. Even though the percentage of the borrowed words from Old Norse is low in nowadays English, these words are of the most fundamental and commonly used ones.
The Anglo-Saxon kingdom of England was just settling down when there happened another foreign intrusion. In 1066, William, Duke of Normandy, with a large mercenary army invaded England, defeated the last Anglo-Saxon king, Harold, at the battle of Hastings and claimed the English throne.
The victorious Normans made up the new aristocracy while the Anglo-Saxons became their subordinates. The Normans spoke a Norman dialect of French, a tongue of a mixed Latin origin and earlier Northmen, who earlier settled on the northern coast of France during the Viking raids. For more than three centuries two different languages have been spoken across the country at the same time. Norman-French has become the official language of the ruling class, nobility, spoken at court; all the official documents were written either in French or Latin. Moreover, writing was completely in the hands of the French speaking scribes who introduced various characters, new diagraphs in spelling. Majority of population all over the country got used to speak two languages at a time according to the needs of communication until English gained its predominance as the national language of the consolidated people under one monarch.
However, it is already established that the Norman loanwords differ severely from the ones treated above. Considering the fact that French has become the official language of people in power, it is not hard to understand that major changes happened in the language of the court, the government, the church, the army and the law. Thus the major groups of loanwords are 'Government and administration' with such examples as assembly, authority, chancellor, council, country, court, crown, exchequer, government, nation, office, parliament, people, power, servant; 'Military terms' - aid, armour, arms, army, battle, captain, command, company, courage, defeat, destroy, enemy, escape, force, guard, lieutenant, navy, obedience, obey, regiment, sergeant, serve, siege, soldier, troops, vessel, victory; 'Titles, ranks, feudal relations' - address baron, count, countess, duke, duchess, feudal, manor, marquis, noble, peer, prince, viscount; sir, madam, mister, master, sovereign, mistress; 'Law and jurisdiction' - accuse, arrest, attorney, case, cause, condemn, court, crime, damage, defendant, false, felony, guilt, heir, injury, interest, judge, jury, just, justice, legal, marriage, money, penalty, plead, poor, poverty, prison, prove, rent, robber, session, sentence, traitor, verdict; 'Architecture' - arch, castle, cellar, chimney, column, couch, curtain, cushion, lamp, mansion, mirror, palace, pillar, porch, table, wardrobe; 'Art and entertainment' - art, beauty, colour, design, figure, image, ornament, paint, chase, card, dance, dice, leisure, pleasure, poet, sport, tournament, question. [Macek, 2007: 30-31 in Tintor, 2011].
The period of the Norman reign is marked by a plenty of doublets that appeared in the language mostly connected with the social relations which is vividly demonstrated by the names of animals and their flesh. The poor Anglo-Saxon villagers who raised and looked after the cattle used the words of Germanic origin to name their animals; however, these words found their etymological doublets of French origin, once the meat dishes were served to the noble Normans: calf (A-S) - veal (OF), cow - beef, sheep - mutton, swine - pork.
Also there are lots of corresponding words for the same subjects and actions. For example, to give up - to abandon, to give in - to surrender, to come in - to enter, to begin - to commence, to go on - to continue, motherhood - maternity, child - infant, fight - battle, freedom - liberty, work -labour, wish - desire, shut - close, ask - demand, wood - forest, yearly - annual, smell - odour, forgive - pardon. Over time, many synonyms acquired subtle differences in meaning, adding to the precision and flexibility of the rich English vocabulary.
During the reign of the Norman King Henry II, many more words from standard Old French came into the English language. These words entered as doublets because they appeared later than the initial Anglo-Saxon counterparts from Norman French. They shared the same meaning, however pronunciation and spelling differed significantly, e.g., catch (A-N) - chase (OF), car - chariot,
castle - chateau, hostel - hotel, reward - regard, warden - guardian, warranty - guarantee. Summing up, the Norman Conquest changed English dramatically in a variety of areas, lexis, phonetics and spelling. All the language alterations have been proceeding against the background of the radical social transformation which made the cultural and linguistic results of the conquest the most far reaching in consequences.
Conclusion
Having analyzed the loan words which have entered English after five foreign conquests the selected data have been systematized and the following conclusion have been made:
- The Celtic borrowings left the biggest mark in the area of toponymy. As the Celts were the first people to expand the territory of initial Britain a lot of place names have Celtic origin. The names of landscape scenes including bodies of water (rivers, lakes, streams, ponds) were of the first priority due to substances and religious reasons. The names of hills and valleys were important for hunters and farmers. Often a town or a settlement was named after its function, (e.g.: farm, fort, etc.) after the tribe's leader or after the name of tribe itself.
- The impact of Latin through the influence of the Roman Empire was considerably significant. Out of all the studied groups of loan words the most relevant and large ones are the words connected with trade (including animals, domestic items, plants, herbs and foods), as it was one of the most important crafts of the Romans through which a lot of new names for the frequently used things came into the word stock followed by the words related to Christianity and later on to learning and education.
- The Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain and the tribes' settlement led to the beginning of what is known today as British culture. The language the Anglo-Saxons spoke was the initial form of English; consequently, a lot of words absorbed after this conquest became the most fundamental and commonly used ones.
- The loan words which entered English after the Danish conquest were characterized by their relation to the warfare. But most importantly, as Old Norse and Old English were the languages originating from the Proto-Germanic, the borrowings from the Viking period appear to be basic and frequent in everyday language. In the book by E.L. Thorndike and I. Lorge. (1944) where they estimated the most commonly used English words, around 80% of the first 500 are of Old Norse and Old English origin.
- The Norman Conquest brought about the major changes into English. A high per cent of all the borrowings entered the language exactly after this conquest. As Norman-French was mostly the native language of the Norman nobility, the higher layer of society, most of loan words of the period could be found in the vocabulary pertaining to government and administration, military ranks and terms, feudal relations including titles and status, areas of law and jurisdiction and also in the spheres of art and entertainment.
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Подгаец Анна Марковна
Кандидат филологических наук, доцент кафедры лингвистики и перевода
Пермский государственный национальный исследовательский университет
Соловьева Елизавета Игоревна
Студентка кафедры лингвистики и перевода,
Пермский государственный национальный исследовательский университет
ЛЕКСИЧЕСКИЕ ПОСЛЕДСТВИЯ ЗАВОЕВАНИЙ В ИСТОРИИ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА
В статье рассматриваются лингвистические последствия военных вторжений на Британские острова на английский словарный состав. Предполагая различный характер завоеваний, данная работа исследует отражение результатов последствий культурных различий.
Ключевые слова: завоевание, лингвистические последствия, вторжение, заимствования, заимствованные слова, дублеты, этимология, словарь.
