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24PHILOLOGICAL SCIENCES
LEXICAL ASSOCIATIVE FIELD VS LEXICAL ASSOCIATIVE GROUP (BASED ON THE MATERIAL OF MODERN BRITISH NOVELS ON MILITARY THEMES)
Shainer I.I.
Ivan Franko National University of Lviv
ABSTRACT
The research focuses on the peculiarities of the expansion of the lexical semantic space of the literary text, which includes three directions: lexical semantic, lexical thematic and lexical associative axes. It provides the models of the main lexical associative field and lexical associative groups, their structure and functioning in the modern British texts on military themes. The article emphasizes the main differences between the notions of LAF and LAG.
Keywords: lexical semantic space, lexical associative field (LAF), lexical associative group (LAG), lexical semantic field / group, lexical thematic field / group.
Introduction. Nowadays there may be found different definitions of the term semantic field, however most scientists identify a field as a structural formation based on the semantic proximity [4; 5; 9; 12; 15; 18; 22; 23]. Thus, in our research we define a field as a complex system of clearly organized and interacting lexical units and structures, which supplement each other forming altogether an entire meaningful unity in the outline of the lexical semantic space of a literary text. The lexical semantic space is an important element of the semantic structure of a literary text. It consists of lexical means, used by the author, and their sense, encoded by the author and interpreted by the reader. We agree with the definition of the lexical semantic space as a unity of lexemes, structurally organized in lexical semantic groupings (fields, groups, subgroups etc.). In this way, the lexical semantic space of the text is an arranged system of lexical units, based on similar themes and conceptual meaning, representing a certain conceptual sphere [1, c. 4; 19, c. 115]. The lexical semantic space is characterized by three axes of expansion: semantic, thematic and associative. Thus, lexical units in a literary text function as organized structures within lexical formations (lexical semantic, lexical thematic and lexical associative fields / groups).
The topicality of the article lies in the need for a clear distinction between the terms: lexical semantic field / group, lexical thematic field / group, lexical associative field / group, since there is no single scientific opinion on this matter. Besides, it is topical to conduct a deep analysis of modern literary texts on military themes and their lexical system by means of modelling of LAFs and LAGs. Since the war theme is extremely popular nowadays, it seems urgent to investigate its reflection in the literary texts. The outlining of the dominant lexical associative groupings (fields, micro-fields, groups and subgroups) as well as defining their structural organization in the text, enables the discovery of macro- and micro-ideas, hidden by the author at a deeper level. The aims of the research are the following: to illustrate the peculiarities of the LAF and the LAG, to define the basis for their distinguishing, to
demonstrate their structure and functioning on the examples of modern British literary texts on military themes.
The structural unity of any semantic field is provided by a sememe [21, c. 79]. A semantic field is a complex hierarchical organization of lexical structures, consisting of the centre (core) and the periphery. The core of the field is formed by the most frequently used words, lexical semantic variants with the general explication of their sense. The periphery comprises units which are more distant from the field name (stylistic synonyms, figurative reinterpretations) and may be members of other semantic fields as well [15, c. 123].
A lot of scholars were interested in the problem of the associative potential of a word and modelling of the associative fields and groupings [3; 8; 10; 11; 13; 14; 16; 17; 18; 20; 23; 28; 30]. In general, a lexical associative field is defined as a special type of the vocabulary unity, the structure of which is based on linguistic and extra linguistic relations. It is characterized by flexibility and diffusivity, which are determined by the relativity of the notions of motivation and randomness, between which there may be found different grades of transition [3, 150-151]. We support the idea of T. Nedashkivska, who distinguishes the following principle of the LAF modelling: "the associative meaning is the core of the associative field, a part of the individual ideas of the speaker constructs the periphery" [17, c. 127]1. A word in a certain context, as a result of the author's intention, can acquire some additional figurative and stylistic colouring, associative patterns, metaphoric reinterpretations. Such units are the basis of the LAF.
In the literary texts on military themes the semantics of the phenomenon of war is realized not only in the explicit, but in the implicit way as well. It occurs due to the verbalization of the individual author's associations, which enables us to distinguish the central in the literature on military themes lexical associative field "Military Reality". The figurativeness of the associative axis expansion in the lexical semantic space is provided by the presence in the texts of: occasional
1 here and further we provide our translation
word combinations, implicit expression of the phenomena and objects of military reality, connotations of lexical units.
The basis for the unification of lexical units is the presence of the common word-incentive - 'war' / 'military'. The core of the LAF is presented by the most frequent reactions to the word-incentive (ex. attack, battlefield, enemy, bravery, patriot, fear, hunger, destruction, death). On the periphery there may be outlined a few micro-fields, which are formed by the less frequent reactions to the incentive and include conno-tative, figurative, evaluative and associative character-
istics: 1) the micro-field "struggle", which is the associative framing of the peculiarities of the military actions and attacks; 2) the micro-field "soldier" - an expressive stylistic intensification of the uniform and weapon; 3) the micro-field "human body", which is characterized by the associative development of the theme of the human body, crippled in the war, and also body movements which accompany the emotional state of a person; 4) the micro-field "inner state", that comprises different emotions and mental disorders, caused by the war. Thus, the LAF "Military Reality" in the literary texts on military themes may be presented as following:
The lexical associative group (LAG) is a smaller formation within the lexical semantic field. The modelling of LAGs is also based on the associative relations between the word-incentive and reactions to it. Nevertheless, LAGs are not characterized by a core-peripheral structure. LAGs reflect the rules of lexical units functioning according to formal or logical semantic indices [16, 367]. Thus, LAGs are close semantic unities that usually consist of elements belonging to the same part of speech. The relations within the subgroups are the relations of commutation and substitution, demonstrating different degrees of expression of some quality, feature, action or opposing the qualities of the feature, action, object or phenomenon. The modelling of lexical associative groups and subgroups in the texts makes it possible to conduct a deeper analysis of micro-themes and micro-ideas hidden by the author.
In the lexical semantic space of the literary texts on military themes LAGs, first of all, determine a special structure of the meaning through the associative semantic links, which vividly confirm the originality and exclusiveness of the author's style. The outlining of LAGs is based on the main peculiarities of associations: 1) the presence of the sphere of reference, limiting to some extent the space of the associative expansion; 2) the associative structure reflecting the strategy of the associative construction [33, 140]. In the LAGs of the texts on military themes there may be conducted an inner structural division into associative lines, reflecting the directions of the associative enrichment in the semantic or thematic nucleuses. The following scheme provides a model of the dominant LAGs and their associative correlations in the texts on military themes:
Lexical Associative Field
1. LAG "War":
Peculiarities of military actions: serious offence, short-range attack, fierce attack, bloody war Distinct features of struggle: fight one's blasted war, too young to fight, fight for so long in such terrible conditions War consequences: destruction, ruination, ruins, injuries, wound, tragedy, chaos, tremor Actions with weapon: raise, fire, burn, hold, train, take, handle, lift, lay down
Peculiarities of actions connected with weapon: to wave a rifle dramatically, to use the knives correctly, the bullets whizzing past one's head Euphemisms for military realia: there (= at war: There till the end, were you?; I had two boys out there), it (= war: since it ended) Metonymic representation of soldiers: uniforms emerge, gray / black / dangerous uniforms Expressive stylistic intensification of the uniform: brains splatted over one's new uniform, a black uniform oddly funereal; fantastic, impressive uniform
2. LAG "Body":
Physiological characteristics of parts of the body: blue eyes, dark hair, strong arm, long finger Distinct characteristics of parts of the body: unattractive body, sad eyes, trembling finger, tired feet Movements of parts of the body: raise (hand), open (eyes), nod, tremble, glaze Peculiarities of movements: wring hands nervously, shake one's head in surprise, incline one's head graciously Metaphoric representation ofparts of the body: black holes of one's mouth, sun in one's eyes, smile lighting one's face
3. LAG "Nature":
Peculiarities of nature: dark clouds, strong wind, warm weather, stormy sea, fresh air Expressive stylistic intensification of nature: disastrous rain, bright moon, brown water Metaphoric representation of natural phenomena: the white of the sky, heart of the mountains, a slice of night sky, blanket of snow Metaphoric similes: water seemed white as milk, the wind was as solid as a velvet curtain Personification of nature: dormant volcano, mute forests, silent park, restless sky
4. LAG "Feelings":
Expressive stylistic intensification of feelings: perfectly happy, feel desperately unattractive, pure anger Metaphoric reinterpretation of feelings: a fog lifting from one's mind, waves of tiredness, weird water of my heart Similes in expression of emotions / feelings: it was like shoveling water from a sinking boat; I was like a thirsty man reaching after a mirage of water putting out my hands to the vision Peculiarities of experiencing emotions / feelings: tortured by humiliation, smile in an avuncular fashion, laugh in delight, raise voice in horror, signs of remorse
The modelling of LAGs and their correlations enables the conducting of a deep analysis of the associative axis expansion and its functioning in the text. The following examples demonstrate the expressive stylistic intensification of the uniform importance in a war period: "Father was at the centre of them and looked very smart in his freshly pressed uniform. His thick dark hair had obviously been recently lacquered and combed, and as Bruno watched from above he _ felt both scared and in awe of him. He didn't like the look of the other men quite as much. They certainly weren't as handsome as Father. Nor were their uniforms as freshly pressed" [27, p. 14]; "I turn to watch as three men in heavy, starched uniforms emerge from a nearby barrack and stride towards us. Everything about them
stinks of authority and I _ feel a rush of something unexpected. Apprehension, certainly. Desire, perhaps" [25, p. 22]; "The German laughed again, took another strawberry and made his way back through the crowd, his black uniform oddly funereal among the bright patchwork of the market. Later my mother tried to explain. All uniforms were dangerous, she told me, but the black ones above all" [29, p.26]. It can be summed up that the meaning of a uniform is interpreted in two ways: on the one hand - it is admiration by the people in uniforms, on the other hand - it is the feeling of fear and alarm, especially when it relates to enemy forces.
Another peculiarity of the texts on military themes is the associative reinterpretation of the human body in
its relation to the war. First of all, it refers to the expression of the inner state of a person in military situations through the peculiarities of the body and its movements. Secondly, there are associative lines connected with the injured body. For instance, " 'But I was just a child,' pleaded Pieter. 'I didn 't know anything. I didn 't understand.' She shook her head and took his face in her hands. 'Look at me, Pieter,' she said. 'Look at me.' He looked up, tears in his eyes. 'Don't ever pretend that you didn't know what was going on here. You have eyes and you have ears. And you sat in that room on many occasions, taking notes. You heard it all. You saw it all. You knew it all. And you also know the things you are responsible for.'" [26, p. 148]; "The leg was slender in my hands, thick with springing dark hair, but the skin had a yellowish, bloodless look, and in various spots on the calf and shin the hair gave way to polished pink dents and ridges. The knee was as pale and bulbous as some queer root, and terribly stiff. The muscle of the calf was shallow and rigid, knotty with indurated tissue. The ankle _ joint—which Roderick was drastically overusing, in compensation for the lack of movement above—looked puffy and inflamed" [32, p. 65]; "But it wasn 't Lavinia Nesbit's dress. A dress didn't have arms in it. Not sleeves, but arms. With hands. Something on the dress winked at Ursula, a little cat's eye caught by the crescent moon. The headless, legless body of Lavinia Nesbit herself was hanging from the Millers' picture rail. It was so absurd that a laugh began to boil up inside Ursula. It never broke because something shifted - a beam, or part of the wall - and she was sprinkled with a shower of talcum-like dust. Her heart thumped uncontrollably in her chest" [24, p. 100]. As it can be seen from the passages, the combination of different associative lines contributes to the associative framing of the human body theme with emotive connotations. Thus, emotions and feelings of the characters appear to the reader with reference to the physical structure. Moreover, an expressive stylistic colouring intensifies the effect of the war consequences on a person in a physical dimension.
Conclusion. Figurative images, skillfully outlined with the help of remote associations and combining of the incompatible elements, form a system of tropes in the lexical semantic space of the text. The associativity of the military reality is presented the most vividly by epithet constructions, metaphoric complexes and simile expressions. As it is stressed by I. Arnold, a word in a literary text acquires additional "overtones of meaning", which are absent in the dictionary, appearing only in the context [2, c. 35]. The constituents of the LAF "Military Reality" are characterized by the associative figurative stratification to the main lexical meaning. It affirms the broadening of the meaning of the word in a certain context: "Breaking off with its initial limited meaning the word seems to slip out into space, to acquire more broad and general content, overgrowing with additional nuances" [7, c. 30].
In general, associations in the lexical semantic space of the literary texts on military themes function as a means of supplementing of vivid notional intonations to the meanings of lexical units. The LAF is a complex system and the study of its structure is the key
to the detailed analysis of the literary space of the text. The modelling of the dominant LAFs enables us to reveal the general directions of the lexical semantic space expansion, while the outlining of the main LAGs makes it possible to analyze the text structure at a deeper level, discovering new shades of the idea or problems encoded by the author. LAGs are formed around lexical semantic and lexical thematic groups with the help of their associative supplementing. That is why, it seems perspective to analyze the lexical semantic space of the text with the help of modelling of three types of fields: lexical semantic, lexical thematic and lexical associative fields, and the corresponding groups.
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PARALLEL CORPORA IN TRANSLATION STUDIES
Umerova M. V.
Ph.D. in Linguistics, Associate Professor National Research University Higher School of Economics
ABSTRACT
The present paper discusses the use of parallel corpus in translation, the norm of translation, teaching and learning material, translation model evaluation using corpus-based tools. Translation memory (TM) systems within Computer-Aided Translation (CAT) courses are incorporated in translator's professional training. TM systems are part of everyday working environment, even though professional translators would like to learn more about the potential of corpora for translation. Overall, the practical use of corpora and corpus technology is of paramount importance. It is necessary to assess to which extent corpora are valuable for translation quality in professional and academic environments
Keywords: translation technology, corpus, translator training, universals of translation, translation norms, source text, target text
Corpus and corpus linguistics have been gradually developed. Application of corpus has broadened the horizon of applied linguistics and provided a new model for translation and foreign language teaching. Parallel corpus provides a powerful tool for translation studies and promotes translation teaching. Since the 1990s, Mona Baker [1], Gideon Toury, Miram Shle-singer, Kristen Malmkjaer [7] and other translators have been describing the nature of translation by using corpus. In 1995, the research center for translation of UMIST headed by Mona Baker founded the first comparable corpus - Translational English Corpus (TEC). At present, many large-scale parallel corpora are being established on an international scale. There is an opportunity not only to compare similarities and differences between two different languages, but also to carry out
extensive translation teaching and research. The paper discusses positive effects of parallel corpus on universals of translation, the norm of the translation, the style of a translator.
The use of TM systems has become fully integrated in translator training programmes. Translation didactics acknowledged that corpus use forms part of wider translation, the use of corpus processing tools (concordancers) to search through corpora as part of translation resource. The use of TM systems dominates in professional translator's environment, the role of corpora and concordancers as a translation resource needs to be disseminated in translation profession [9, 131].
Translation corpus has a guiding significance for exploration of universal laws and rules of translation,
