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portraying, descriptive marks, which are singular terms. These singular terms belong to a new universe, "running" quantified variables of the theory logical form. Subsets of the new universe are selected as extensional of single predicates, being the basis of interpretation.
Each interpretation of the theoretical forms of R. Langacker in the context of ontological relativity of W. V. O. Quine will be referred to as a model, if this form is true in the interpretation. In this case, in the theory of R. Langacker as model may be recognized only the component of the theory, which is accompanied by a graphic representation and translates the linguistic mind from a mental space, defined by linguistic competence to mental space of a system of pairwise mutually exclusive events, or the space of the system entropy. The entropy is taken in its understanding in applied combinatorics [Kofman 1975] as the mathematical expectation of some random variable, which is able to detect itself if there is a
certain probability, contribute to the occurrence of the event, which will become the material carrier of magnitude.
Cognitive theory R. Langacker is described as the example of linguistic theory which is adapted to the needs of post-industrial design, relies on a mathematical variant of the design knowledge that discovers the identity at the level of the inner form of the philosophy of language "generative grammar" and theory of language "cognitive grammar". In this case, from the point of view of ontological relativity W. V. O. Quine the definition of the universe of cognitive grammar is meaningful only relative to prior theory - generative grammar - and some choice of the transfer of transformational theory into cognitive theory. As the transfer method, in our opinion, the design knowledge is selected what allows in the designing metal space pairwise mutually exclusive events to replace linguistic competence by the ability to design, defined as "designery ways of knowing", and thus, to make
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next theoretical transformation of everyday reality.
References
1. Kant Im. Kritika chistogo razuma [Tekst] / Im. Kant. M, 1994.
2. Kofman A. Vvedenie v prikladnuju kombinatoriku [Tekst] / A. Kofman. M., 1975.
3. Frimen Ju., Skolimovskij G. Poisk ob#ektivnosti u Pirsa i Poppera [Tekst] / Ju. Frimen// Jevoljucionnaja jepistemologija i logika social
4. Shramko Ja.V. Chto takoe analiticheskaja filosofija? [Tekst] /Ja.V. Shramko // Jepistemologija i filosofija nauki. 2007. T. XI. S. 875. Cross N. Designerly Ways of Knowing [Text] / N. Cross // Design Studies. 1982ю Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 221-227.
6. Fauconnier G.. Mental Spaces: Aspects of Meaning Construction in Natural Language [Text] / G. Fauconnier. Cambridge (Mass.),
1985.
2008
7. Langacker R.W. Cognitive Grammar. A Basic Introduction. Cognitive [Text] / R.W. Langacker. New York, Oxford University Press. Quine W.V.O. Ontological Relativity [Text] / W.V.O Quine //The Journal of Philosophy. 1968. Vol. LXV, № 7. P. 185-212.
Шишкова Дина Дмитриевна
Образовательная студия "Тьютор"
ЛЕКСИЧЕСКИЕ И СИНТАКСИЧЕСКИЕ ОСОБЕННОСТИ АНГЛИЙСКОЙ ГАЗЕТНОЙ СТАТЬИ
Аннотация
В данной статье рассматриваются особенности английского газетного стиля. Приводятся результаты исследования лексики, синтаксиса и структуры английской газетной статьи. В качестве материала исследования автор использует выпуски газеты The Guardian с 01.12.12 по 01.04.13.
Ключевые слова: газетный стиль, публицистика, английская газетная статья.
Shishkova Dina Dmitrievna
School "Tutor"
LEXICAL AND SYNTACTIC PECULIARITIES OF AN ENGLISH NEWSPAPER ARTICLE
Abstract
The article considers pecularities of English journalese. The results of research on lexics, syntax, structure of newspaper articles and headlines are provided. The author uses ussues of "The Guardian" from 01.12.12 till 01.04.13 as research data.
Keywords: journalese, english newspaper article, publicism.
Journalese, the style of newspapers, formed in the English language in the middle of 19th century. It has come a long way of shaping. The first English newspaper, called «The News of the Present Week» was published in 1622. Before that there had been periodic news leaflets. But due to the law that permitted using the printing press without king’s personal permission, all the information that was to be published in the leaflets was strictly censored. In the end of the 17th century this law was abolished and since that time the history of the English journalese began. For years newspapers have been one of the main sources of information and thanks to their availability in the Internet they stay up to date till today. The language that we see on the newspaper pages has its own lexical and stylistic peculiarities. These peculiarities will be examined in this article.
The structure of the English article.
The majority of English articles have the structure of an inverted pyramid. This means that the main information of the article is summarized in the first paragraph, thus turning the text upside down. The ending, the consequences of an event are put in the first place, whereas the details and the initial cause are revealed later. The aim of such structure is to bring the vital information to the reader’s attention as soon as possible, which is in the first passages of the article. Secondary information is introduced in the third-forth paragraph of the article, though the reader might not read so far. In his article “the birth of the inverted pyramid” an American journalist and writer Chip Scanlan says that the appearance of the structure of the inverted pyramid owes much to the invention of the
telegraph, that happened 150 years ago. Given that the massages were expensive, journalists tried to avoid the copious style of 19th century and invented a new, compressed style. [6]
According to the research 48 articled out of the analised 50 have the structure of the inverted pyramid and only two have the chronological structure. It should be pointed out that this structure is very convenient for news texts as it gives the reader the possibility to learn about the changes in a particular situation very quickly. Peculiarities of English newspaper headlines.
The distinguishing feature of an English headline is simplified grammar. In passive constructions the verb “to be” is often omitted: Chinese traffic police given anti-smog nasal filters
(27.03) instead of Chinese traffic police IS given anti-smog nasal filters;
French driver trapped for an hour in speeding 125mph car with no brakes (13.02) instead of French driver WAS trapped for an hour in speeding 125mph car with no brakes.
Articles and possessive pronouns are also omitted: Princess Diana's dress snapped up by anonymous bidder as surprise for wife.(19.03).
The Present Simple Tense is mainly used in headlines, even if past actions are described. The Present Simple tense gives a reader the feeling of simultaneity of events:
Paris fashion week: Raf Simons repeats Oscars triumph for Dior. (1.03)
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Andrew Marr leaves hospital nearly two months after suffering a stroke. (01.03)
The use of quotations and direct speech is common for English headlines:
73-year-old bank robber 'wanted to return to jail'. (13.02) Nicolas Sarkozy: I'd return to politics only to
save France. (06.03)
Relaxation of US cannabis laws ‘violates UN drug convention'. (22.03)
The jobseeker's story: 'I'm not proud to say I've gone
beggmg'. (22.°3)
Indirect speech is also occasionally used: World's oldest person Jiroemon Kimura 115, says rise with the sun, read a paper. (07.03) Adoption reforms must slow down and give more support to parents, say peers. (06.03)
Foreign words and emotional lexics are often used:
French Communist party says adieu to the hammer and sickle (10.02) (adieu — french "Good bye" ); Bonjour ... David Beckham introduces himself as a Paris Saint-Germain player. (31.01) (Bonjour - french “Good afternoon”).
Minami Minegishi of AKB48 appears in tearful mea culpa on YouTube after breaking her band's strict rules on dating, (mea culpa - (from Latin, often humorous, used when you are admitting that sth is your fault).
Readers can also come cross tropes in newspaper headlines: Fashion renews its love affair with the royal family (metaphor). (22.03)
It should be pointed out that the main function of English headlines is the informative function, the author in the first place informs the reader what the article is about and only after that tries to attract attention and advertise his work: Syria crisis: European countries expected to start arming rebels. (01.02), Paralyzed people could get movement back through thought control. (17 .02), Childcare costs rising by more than twice the rate of inflation. (06.03)
A few words must be said about the structure of an English headline. Most commonly a headline is a two-member sentence which has a subject and a predicate. Single words and phrases seldom make headlines: Obesity crisis: doctors demand soft drinks tax and healthier hospital food (18.02), Spanish city's ban on Islamic veils overturned (28.02)
Lexical and syntactical peculiarities of an English article.
One of the main peculiarities of English articles is without a doubt the role of passive voice. It is especially evident in news reports:
More than 200 medicinal products are affected. ( 27.02)
The message was received, loud and clear. (01.03) ...he could be sent to prison for up to 20 years. (13.02)
Thus, it can be said that passive constructions are more common than active constructions. Apart from passivizing, peculiar is the amount of non-finite verbs: gerund, participal 1 and participal 2, that make the text more informative and logical:
Reading helps (31.01)
... to talk to families about receiving help (19.03)
She also agreed that the property, accessed by narrow lanes, was an "open house" for family, friends and then her boyfriend (19.03)
However, all were discharged within two days to two weeks having gained weight and none had long-term damage.
(20.03)
Cliches are often used in newspaper articles. This is one if the features of newspaper style: according to federal complaint, according to state media report, presumed, estimated, to be reported, it is claimed, it was announced, one the one hand ... one the other hand, ... declined to comment, on the agenda etc.
Frequent is also the occurrence of infinitive phrases, such as: to be expected, to be said to, to appear to, to be likely to do, to fail to do:
... and the proposal appears to have the support of David Cameron. (13.03)
But newspaper groups appeared to be moving to boycott the new system... (19.03)
The aid is expected to include civilian vehicle... (02.03)
The woman is said to have injured herself escaping from her first-floor room... (19.03)
Talking about cliche expressions and infinitive phrases, one should point out the verb “to allege” - to assert to be true, affirm; and its derivative phrases - to be alleged, allegedly. This verb is used almost in every article and it is fair to assume that it is very important in the modern press. As well as the infinitive phrases “to appear to”, “to be said to”, the phrase “to be alleged to” is used in those cases when the author is not absolutely sure in the reliability of the information that he transmits:
A British tourist in India has been injured after she fled her hotel in fear when a man allegedly tried to barge into her room (19.03)
The prosecution has said the motive for the men 's alleged plot may never be known. (19.03)
Newspaper articles are also rich in complex and compound sentences:
Local newspapers and magazines could also set up on their own, insiders have warned, while Scotland is also threatening a separate system. (19.03)
Jobcentre employees across the country say that as a direct result of this sort of pressure they are now expected to hit a "minimum expected level" of sanctions (22.03).
Complex sentences are more common in English newspapers than compound ones.
Frequent is the use parenthesis such as: of course, although, finally, meanwhile, however, at first glance, therefore.
Newspaper article abound in phrasal verbs, that are the feature of colloquial speech: come up, turn in, draw up, dry up, carry out, cash in, stand up, sum up, put off, get by, catch up etc.
Proverbs and saying are often used:
Charity begins at home ‘A lot of families in this country need help'.(19.03)
Prevention is better than cure. (31.01)
Colloquial lexics is often used: plonk, booze, gag, spoof, cool, dorky, soap (from soap opera).
Texts of newspaper article are rich in idioms:
If the couple intended to keep a low profile, they succeeded (07.03) (keep a low profile - to stay out of public notice)
The sporting world seemed poised to give the cold shoulder to Oscar Pistorius after a court in South Africa allowed the Olympic and Paralympic star to return to international competition (31.04) (to give the cold shoulder - to behave towards someone in an unfriendly way ).
His statement suggests the issue is likely to come to a head on Monday... (13.03) (to come to a head -to reach a critical, crucial stage)
Tropes can often be found in articles: Beckham was asked how it felt to be the granddaddy of French sport. (01.02) (metaphor)
Common are also abbreviations: DWP (Department for Work and Pensions) ILF (inductive loss factor), FTSE (Financial Times Stock Exchange Index); V-E day - Victory in Europe day, GP (general practitioner) PR (public relations).
Apart from abbreviations the articles include shortenings. Due to the fact that The Guardian is quality press, it does not include as many shortenings as tabloids. However, some common ones occur in separate articles: it’s, aren’t, haven’t, won’t, doesn’t, teens instead of teenagers, high-tech instead of high-technology etc. Such usage of shortening can be justified on the one hand by the tendency to economize speech, increased speed of transmitting massages, one the other hand, by one of the essential features of newspaper articles - simplicity and intelligibility to every member of society. Apart from all that, the usage of shortenings makes the speech more modern, fresh and expressive. And due to the fact that all the used shortenings come to newspaper language from everyday life, the reader has no problem deciphering them. It is convenient for the journalist to use shortenings as synonyms of full word forms to avoid excessive repetition.
Since journalistic genre is often described as expression versus standard, special terms can also occur. Law and economics terms occur quite often: trafficking, misdemeanor, felony, defendant, inflation, bailout, stock market.
The results of the research show that the English newspaper article has the following features: lexical variety (from colloquial to scientific terms), the use of stylistic figures and tropes which realize the influential function of newspaper texts. The syntax of the articles
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includes complex sentences, non-finate verb. All these features of delivery of information as well as influential function. newspaper article are determined by the striving for shortness, quick
References
1. David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, Holyhead, 1994. - 498 c.
2. Макаренко Е.А., Богданова О.Г., Стилистика английского языка/ Учебное пособие . - Ставрополь: Изд-во СГПИ, 2008. - 92 с.
3. Malkolm Millet, Handbook for Journalists of Central and Eastern Europe Washington, 1990. - 101 с
4. Кузнец М.Д., Скребнев Ю.М. Стилистика английского языка: пособие для студентов педагогических вузов/ по ред. Амосовой Н.Н. - Л.: 1960. - 174 с.
5. www.guardian.co.uk
6. www.poynter.org
Theory of translation (UDC 81'25)
Лунькова Лариса Николаевна
Московский государственный областной социально-гуманитарный институт ЧТО МЫ ЧИТАЕМ, ЧИТАЯ В ПЕРЕВОДЕ?
Аннотация
В статье рассматривается феномен понимания как коммуникативный процесс в целом. Чтение художественного текста позиционируется в этой связи как вариант коммуникативного процесса, где писатель - это отправитель сообщения, а читатель -получатель. Отдельным аспектом процесса понимания выделен процесс и результат понимания переводного текста. Автор анализирует механизмы и этапы процесса декодирования сообщения в условиях изменения внешней детерминанты. В статье приводятся некоторые эмпирические данные на основе сопоставления оригинала и перевода художественного текста, иллюстрирующие теоретические положения.
Ключевые слова: понимание, коммуникация, перевод.
Lunkova Larisa Nikholaevna
Moscow Region Stste Institute of Social Studies and Humanities WHAT WE READ WHEN WE READ IN TRANSLATION
Abstract
The article treats the phenomenon of understanding as a communicative process in general, and reading a literary text is positioned as a type of communication process. In it the author is the message sender and the reader is the message recipient. Reading a translation of a literary text as a process and as a result is analyzed by the author particularly as an aspect of the process of understanding. The article also dwells on the mechanisms and stages of the decoding process when the linguistic and extra linguistic conditions are changed. The theoretical assumtions are illustrated by empirical data received in a research specially held by the author.
Keywords: understanding, communication, translation.
The communication act, according to R.Jacobson, is a linear interaction between the sender and the recipient mediated by the code, the contact and the context. Logically we may similize reading a text to oral communication. Thus, text understanding and interpreting are obviously determined by the same factors as verbal communication. Understanding of a literary text is the fulfillment of a definite communicative task. Which means that the difficulties in the text interpretation are similar to the difficulties in the interaction of communication participants. And the failure in decoding leads to the fact that the sender’s idea is not perceived at all or at least transformed.
In our thinking the reading process being likened to the communication act may be also linear and the stages of the information processing are placed successively and alternately. Thus, we suggest an adaptation of the familiar scheme of the communication act and develop it in connection with the reading process. It becomes evident that the information sent and the information received may differ both in quality and in quantity because the reconstruction the reader has to hold is determined by a different set of factors than the author’s and a new semantic entity, a new construction is given birth to.
Obviously its components will differ in quantity from the original one since any information transference implies information loss. More than that, the components of the recreated construction are far from identical to the original in quality. For, in the first place, they undergo individual processing by the reader, and, secondly, are affected by numerous linguistic and extra linguistic factors that change both their importance and their significance. Some researchers call it “the reader’s determinant” meaning a variable element “determined by the reader’s experience and the background (the reader’s mental context)” [3; c.10].
The text recreation process itself may be modeled as a kids puzzle-picture building - attaching separate pieces to each other. But this metaphor does not give way to the great scale of variations that a text reconstruction suggests every time it is read. In a puzzle-picture a particular place is ascribed to a particular piece in accordance with its shape and its “contents”, the places are fixed and preset by the programmed result - the original picture. The text recreation process can be also compared to the reconstruction of the patchwork quilt. The pieces are normally identical in size, they most
definitely every time change their places, though remaining always the same in number. This never happens when reading a text, so neither analogy works here.
Text reconstructing is not predetermined by the expected result, neither it is directed towards a definite final product. Even the number of initial elements may differ in the recreated text, actually it always does. In other words, reading a text, or reconstructing a text, - is a creative process unlikely to be programmed and limited by the result.
The recipient is evidently made to search for the key or the signal to the most complete reconstruction of the text sent by a speaker or a writer. But reconstructing is logically a secondary process. It follows that the reconstruction is a variation to a certain degree different from the originally sent message.
The theory of communication operates with the basic scheme: “the sender - the message - the recipient”. Its mechanism includes three stages: first there is a code preset by the discourse type, then there is a text coded within this system, transferred and decoded. The code is a constant, the text is a variable. Ideally the “input-text” and the “output-text” are identical, but in practice there is always a loss of information [2]. Y.M. Lotman states that this can’t be avoided a priori. However, it may be disputable, for in the reconstruction process information may not only be lost but also incremented through the influence of the new context. In this connection we can hardly treat the transformation of the initial text in terms of the information loss.
Quite definitely, if the input and the output are not identical both in structure and in contents it is a loss. Because even if the reader manages to preserve the number of information slots does it mean that the lost original element and the new replacing element will be fully equivalent.
Our research goes further than that. We suggest that reading a literary text in translation makes a more complicated mechanism of information processing for it’s mediated by another participant. The linear scheme is getting longer which leads to larger transformations of the original message. The communication chain is extended through another member. And the reconstruction as a product undergoes an extra transformation mediated by the interpreter. The new piece is characterized by a greater amount of both semantic loss and semantic increment. Consequently the message sent and the
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