19Р.М. Нуримбетов
go-sel_fa-i-oboronnoe-znacenie-arktiki--monitoring-federal_nih-smi--17-23-marta-2014-goda (accessed 15 February 2015).
18. Sovet Bezopasnosti Rossiiskoi Federatsii. Ekologicheskaya bezopasnost' Rossii [The Security Council of the Russian Federation. Ecological safety of Russia]. Iss. 2. Moscow, 1996. 336 p.
19. Yarullina M.S. Regional'nye mezhdunarodno-pravovye akty po okhrane zhivotnogo mira [Regional international instruments for the protection of fauna]. Uchenye zapiski Kazanskogo universiteta. Ser.: Gumanitarnye nauki [Scientific notes of the Kazan University. Series Humanities Sci., 2010, no. 4]. Available at: http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n7regionalnye-mezhdunarodno-pravovye-akty-po-ohrane-zhivotnogo-mira (accessed 15 February 2015).
Нуримбетов Рустамбек Махмудович, ассистент кафедры международного публичного и частного права Юридической школы Дальневосточного федерального университета, аспирант Юридической школы Дальневосточного федерального университета, г. Владивосток, Россия. E-mail: [email protected]
ПРАВОВОЕ РЕГУЛИРОВАНИЕ ГОРНОГО ДЕЛА НА МОРСКОМ ДНЕ В РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ
На сегодняшний день разработка рудных месторождений на морском дне - это своего рода «темная лошадка» в номенклатуре ресурсодобывающей деятельности. Многолетние технологические и исследовательские усилия государств и заинтересованных в прогрессе горного дела корпораций к текущему моменту не дали значительного промышленного результата, однако прогнозы, предсказывающие перемещение горнодобывающей промышленности на морское дно, продолжают оставаться актуальными, особенно в свете постепенного истощения ресурсов на суше, а также последовательной протекционистской политики государств, контролирующих основной процент добычи меди и редкоземельных металлов. В настоящей статье рассмотрено правовое регулирование вопросов горного дела на морском дне, действующее в Российской Федерации. Характерная особенность российского права в данном аспекте заключается в том, что закон не делает различия между горнодобывающей и нефтегазовой деятельностью на морском дне, приписывая их к категории «недропользование» на соответствующей подводной территории. Таким образом, правовой системе РФ предстоит включить нормы, более детально регулирующие данную специфическую отрасль.
Ключевые слова: право РФ, недропользование, правовое регулирование горного дела, морское дно, глубоководная разработка полезных ископаемых, континентальный шельф.
Rustambek M. Nurimbetov, graduate student, assistant of International public and private law department, Far Eastern Federal University, Vladivostok, Russia. E-mail: [email protected]
LEGAL REGULATION OF MINING ON THE SEABED IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Today, offshore mining is kind of «dark horse» in the nomenclature of resource extraction activity. The long-term technological and exploratory efforts of sates and interested in deep sea mining progress corporations haven't generate enough significant industrial outcome, but still, forecasts predicting mining industry transfer from terrestrial surface to seabed persist, especially in the light of hard minerals gradual depletion overlandand successive protectionist policies of states, which control over the base percentage of copper and rare earth metal production. The present article examines the legal regulation of seabed mining adopted in Russian Federation. The specific feature of Russian law in this aspect lies in legal indifference between mining and oil and gas production on seabed -both activity types are referred as "subsoil use" on certain kind of underwater territory whether it is continental shelf or territorial sea or internal sea waters. Thus, the Russian legal system is to work out the rules particularly regulating this specific industry branch.
Keywords: Russian Federation law, subsoil use, legal regulation of mining, seabed use, deep sea development ofminerals, continental shelf.
It is about fifteen years now, since Russian State stepped in the new age of its historical evolution and from today's prospect we can somewhat objectively view the achievements made by our social and legal systems on the way to justification of economic, scientific and humanitarian cooperation level to the world's major powers. It should be said then, that despite some lack of ideological unity and cultural understanding with its foreign partners Russian Federation still managed to reach and maintain some significant functional role in international economy. Trying to be impersonal, we must admit that not the least point in this situation is devoted to great natural riches of Siberia and Russian Far East. Concerning above mentioned, there is no surprise that the law of natural resources seems to be one of the most perspective and required branches of legal activity in Russian Federation.
Recent political situation which we are not going to discuss in present paper moved our state to digress from exploitation of Siberian mineral resources as primary objective and turn the sight to north where the vast and tameless maritime spaces of Arctic are located. That means Russian natural resources use' legal regulation should be consistent not only for terrestrial mineral resource extraction, but provide sustainable order of Arctic resources use from all points of statement: from economical liquidity and legal order abidance to environmental safety.
The main question that is concerned to what regulation is applicable to mineral resources extraction depends on the legal status of certain maritime area. Russian Federation's legal system knows several categories of sea areas which are in general comparable to sea areas established by UNCLOS. Basically according to Russian legal system all marine spaces are divided to those under jurisdiction of a certain state and areas which appear to be international territories.
In accordance to Federal Law "On internal waters, territorial sea and contiguous zone of Russian Federation", there are two types of maritime territories within borders of Russian Federation: internal waters and territorial sea [1]. Russian contiguous zoneis considered to be maritime territory outside the outer borders of territorial sea, adjoins to it and has its outer border at 24 nautical miles since territorial sea baseline, which practically means that contiguous zone cannot expand over 12 nautical miles beyond state border of Russian Federation. Also legal status of contiguous zone has no relation to resource extraction regime unless we perceive contiguous zone as the part of Russian exclusive economic zone.
Russian legal system has strict regulation separating jurisdictionally dependent territory within state borders and exclusive economic zone and continental shelf where sovereign jurisdiction cannot be executed in its full power. There is Federal Law "On exclusive economic zone of Russian Federation" which determines exclusive economic zone as the territory where very certain number of sovereign state's rights can be performed [2]. According to article 5 of above mentioned legal act aside from other rulingsRussian Federation has sovereign right to explore, extract and preserve biological and mineral resources which is quite comparable to regulations established by UNCLOS.The same regulation is fair for continental shelf of Russian Federation which is stated in article 5 of Federal Law "On continental shelf of Russian Federation". Practically that opens wide field for resource-related regulationfrom fishery to seabed mining which is in fact seems commercially underrated today. This statement may not be applied to fishery but is absolutely reasonable when we are talking about mastering mineral resources located on seabed and subsoil.
There is specific difference between legal regimes of resource-extracting (mining) activity on continental shelf and beyond its borders. The core sentence there, is the opportunity to commandeer mineral resources from seabed and its subsoil. Within borders of continental shelf this opportunity is solely given to coastal state, which can by its own legal acts determine the status of mineral resources and form, method and regularity of its extraction if such regulation shall not violate norms of UNCLOS [3]. Thus reveals the entity of continental shelf as the territory that does not fall onto jurisdiction of coastal state but neither it is completely international. And beyond the continental shelf any mining activities are regulated by international law, fundamentally by UNCLOS.
Specifically as it comes to subsoil use in Russian Federation the main legal act in this sphere of activity is Federal Law "On subsoil". It has its force over all relations concerning use of resources located at the subsoil under territory of Russian Federation including its maritime territories and continental shelf. Analysis of
rules there shows several principles organizing subsoil use and state regulation over it. These principles are: exclusive property of Russian Federation over the subsoil itself, however resources extracted from the subsoil may remain in any kind of property and be transmitted freely as far as it doesn't violate regulatory rules, also the properly licensed right to use the subsoil may be transmitted by the will of its owner; use of subsoil must have a special purpose and successively follow it, as it is provided by license formalizing the right of actual use; rational use and environmental safety of subsoil meaning that the priority of acquiring license is given to those subjects who can ensure the most rational use of subsoil area as well as most safe for the environment method by auctions and contests; state regulation through licensing, accounting and state supervision, including calculation of rationally demanded amount of mineral resources to extract in rated term [4]. All those principles are fully applicable to mining on the seabed since the law makes no difference between terrestrial and underwater mining.
Specific regulation over seabed mining in Russian Federation is relatively poor. Proceeding to analysis of articles of federal law on subsoil, it is clear that mineral resources of seabed are of great importance to Russian Federation - article 2.1. refers subsoil of seabed to areas of federal value. Practically that allows Russian Federation to deny licensing on development of mineral resources if legal entity requesting for such license is foreign investor or legal entity established through participation of foreign investor or if such development would endanger national security of Russian Federation. This denial is applicable to requests done within scope of combined license on exploration and development and formalized with special particular decision made by government of Russian Federation. That regulation is related to legal definition of foreign investor and procedure of making such decision. In very deed the definition of foreign investor in this very law is adopted from the federal law "On foreign investments in Russian Federation" [5].
Quite remarkable though that despite federal law evades establishing detailed regulation over the underwater resource extraction there still is certain administratively regulated procedure for obtaining the license to perform a range of underwater works includingseabed mining.
Along with the Federal law "On subsoil" we mention the federal law "On internal waters, territorial sea and contiguous zone of Russian Federation" which is also applicable in sphere of seabed mining. Obviously this legal act regulates relations arising from use of resources located on the seabed within the jurisdiction of Russian Federation so it has practically no comparison with the international law except we keep in mind the conformity of Russian law to UNCLOS in question of delimitating maritime zones.But still there is no specific clause on state regulation over the mining on seabed and its subsoil. All regulations concerning our topic may be deduced from the principles of use of the internal waters and territorial sea areas and use of the subsoil in common. Moreover section four of mentioned law especially makes an exception within regulating relations arising from maritime resource research for research in the subsoil of seabed. That
means all activity concerning practical maritime resource research for purposes of use and preservation of marine resources is regulated by the Federal Law "On subsoil" which indicates that actual regulatory provisions on seabed mining should be included in subsoil use branch of legislation. Besidesthe Federal law "On internal waters, territorial sea and contiguous zone of Russian Federation" has section five which is called "Protection and preservation of marine environment and natural resources of internal marine waters and territorial sea". Surprisingly the main purpose of this chapter is not to determine certain protective rules for exploiting natural resources of the sea but to establish state expertise, supervision and monitoring within borders of Russian Federation.
Actually most of the subsoil use state regulation is fulfilled by the authority on seabed use (Agency on subsoil use - Rosnyedra). This regulation is obviously sublegislative and guided by government's decrees on the topic. However the federal law "On subsoil" determines the basics of state regulation over the subsoil use in general. That includes determination of purposes of regulation, assignation of state geological study, monitoring, control over the rational exploration and extraction and safety of subsoil use activities.This approach may be evaluated as quite conservative according to needs of such industry braches as industrial mining and oil production industry.
Combining all above mentioned it can be concluded that Russian Federation in its national legal system doesn't have much specific regulation on seabed mining, despite the wide range of norms establishing legal rules in sphere of maritime environment safety. Obviously the absence of special regulation has its factual basis - insufficient progress of underwater drilling technologies as well as deficient expansion of maritime mineral resource-extracting activities. Unlike some other countries which specialized legislative concepts on seabed mining, for example Brazil [6], Russia didn't have much need to establish legal rules on current topic, mostly because mining industry had no critical need in resources on the seabed.
On the other hand deep seabed beyond the jurisdiction of Russian Federation falls into international jurisdiction where only international has its force to regulate mining activity of states including Russia. As a member state of International Seabed Authority Russian Federation accepts not only the UNCLOS 1982 but also Implementing Agreement relating to deep seabed mining 1994. That means Russia in its policy on deep seabed mining beyond the borders of national jurisdiction and continental shelf is guided by decisions of International Seabed Authority. According to the Implementing Agreement relating to deep seabed mining the development of resources in the International seabed area (Area) is performed within the category of common heritage of mankind which implies that no state or juridical entity may exercise the right ofproperty on resources extracted from the Area. That statement is widely known through Russian legal doctrine but practically the common heritage of mankind status does not prevent deep seabed resourcesfrom being extracted at all.
International Seabed Authority has detailed procedure of management of the deep seabed mineral resources in accordance with principles of Implementing
Agreement [7]. Actually the legal ability of performing deep seabed mining by any state having will for such activity doesn't seem interdicted by this document as long as that activity answers to requirement of benefit to mankind as whole. Section three of UNCLOS part XI is devoted to development of resources of the Area which includes extraction of deep seabed mineral resources and its management in a manner recognized as harmless for world economy and especially for economy of developing states which are unable to fully participate in development of the resources of the Area. Thus Russian Federation may apply for production of certain mineral resources such as nickel and polymetallic ore in the Area under the procedure of International Seabed Authority.
As it comes to legal regulation of seabed mining on the continental shelf of Russian Federation there we can observe the mixture of national and international legal regulation. Basis of that composition is the part VI of UNCLOS establishing sovereign rights of coastal state over the resources located on the shelf. UNCLOS approaches to extension of coastal state's jurisdiction quite cautiously providing the state mostly the rights for purpose of exploring and exploiting natural resources. In that case we may see some contradictions between Russian national legal regulation over the coastal state and regulation held by UNCLOS. For example article 79 of Convention establishes that all states are entitled to lay submarine cables and pipelines on the continental shelf, as well as performing exploration on continental shelf in purpose of prevention, reduction and control of pollution that may be dealt to environment by such cables and pipelines. However, Federal Law "On continental shelf' provides Russian Federation with exclusive jurisdiction over laying and exploiting underwater cables and pipelines. This contradiction seems even more complicated as we cannot find any sanction in Russian national legal system for violating the provision concerning state jurisdiction over cable laying, while Criminal Code of Russian Federation includes the article 253 which assigns penalty for unsanctioned construction of artificial islands and facilities on continental shelf and for unsanctioned resource-exploring and - extracting activity [8].
As for seabed mining on the continental shelf of Russian Federation it is remarkable that Federal law "On continental shelf' unlike Federal law"On subsoil" has itemized regulations for resource-extractingpractice on the seabed. Specifically, chapter two of law "On continental shelf' is devoted to exploration of continental shelf and development of its mineral resources and appeals to the National program on exploration of continental shelf and development of its mineral resources.The main sentence characterizing seabed mining on the continental is that mining sites are provided to legal entities domiciled at Russian Federation, having at least 50 % of its authorized capital owned by Russian state and answering the technical requirements whichindicated the reliability of such entity as effective user of mining licensewithin principles established by National program. The license for mining is given for terms needed forproduction of declared deposits and may last for up to 25 years while license for exploration of deposits is given for up to 10 years.
Р.М. Нуримбетов
As a conclusion for our observation of seabed mining legal regulation in Russian Federation we should say that it appears to be far more conservative and social-oriented than similar regulation in such countries like Canada and USA, where subject of mining activity is not strictly bound to state policy. In that case commercial practice involving either production works or scientific research at the continental shelf of Russian Federation is effectively controlled by the government for the profit of society and better environment safety.
СПИСОК ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ
1. О внутренних морских водах, территориальном море и прилежащей зоне Российской Федерации [Электронный ресурс] : Федеральный Закон от 31.07.1998 № 155-ФЗ. - Режим доступа: http://base.garant.ru/12112602.
2. Об исключительной экономической зоне Российской Федерации [Электронный ресурс] : Федеральный Закон от 17.12.1998 № 191-ФЗ. - Режим доступа: http://base.garant.ru/179872/.
3. О континентальном шельфе Российской Федерации [Электронный ресурс] : Федеральный Закон от 30.11.1995 № 187-ФЗ. -Режим доступа: http://base.garant.ru/10108686/.
4. О недрах [Электронный ресурс] : Закон Российской Федерации от 21.02.1992 № 2395-1-ФЗ. - Режим доступа: http://base.garant.ru/10104313/.
5. Об иностранных инвестициях в Российской Федерации [Электронный ресурс] : Федеральный Закон от 9.07.1999 № 160-ФЗ. - Режим доступа: http://base.garant.ru/12116250/.
6. Summary of Brazilian Mining Legislation [Electronic resource]. -Access: http://lagodourado.com/pdfs/articles/Summary_of_Brazi lian_Mining_Legislation.pdf.
7. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea [Electronic resource]. - Режим доступа: http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_ag reements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm]
8. Уголовный кодекс Российской Федерации от 13.06.1996 № 63-ФЗ [Электронный ресурс]. - Режим доступа: http://base.garan t.ru/10108000.
REFERENCES
1. Federal Law "On internal waters, territorial sea and contiguous zone of Russian Federation" of 31.07.1998 № 155-FZ. Available at: http://base.garant.ru/12112602/ (accessed 20 Febrary 2015). (In Russian).
2. Federal Law "On exclusive economic zone of Russian Federation" of 17.12.1998 № 191-FZ. Available at: http://base.garant.ru/ 179872/ (accessed 20 Febrary 2015). (In Russian).
3. Federal Law "On continental shelf of Russian Federation" of 30.11.1995 № 187-FZ. Available at: http://base.garant.ru/10108686/ (accessed 20 Febrary 2015). (In Russian).
4. The Law of Russian Federation "On subsoil" of 21.02.1992 № 2395-1-FZ. Available at: http://base.garant.ru/10104313/ (accessed 20 Febrary 2015). (In Russian).
5. Federal Law "On foreign investmentsin Russian Federation" of 9.07.1999 № 160-FZ. Available at: http://base.garant.ru/12116250/ (accessed 20 Febrary 2015). (In Russian).
6. Summary of Brazilian Mining Legislation. Available at: http://lagodourado.com/pdfs/articles/Summary_of_Brazilian_Mining_Legislation.pdf
7. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Available at: http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm (accessed 20 Febrary 2015).
8. Criminal Code of Russian Federation of 13.06.1996 № 63 FZ. Available at: http://base.garant.ru/10108000/ (accessed 20 Febrary 2015). (In Russian).
Рябова Виктория Олеговна, аспирант кафедры европейского права МГИМО(У) МИД России, г. Москва, Россия. E-mail: [email protected]
ПРИСОЕДИНЕНИЕ ЕВРОПЕЙСКОГО СОЮЗА К ЕВРОПЕЙСКОЙ КОНВЕНЦИИ О ЗАЩИТЕ ПРАВ ЧЕЛОВЕКА И ОСНОВНЫХ СВОБОД: ПРОБЛЕМЫ И ПЕРСПЕКТИВЫ
Присоединение ЕС к Европейской конвенции о защите прав человека и основных свобод (ЕКПЧ), ставшее юридически возможным после принятия Лиссабонского договора, имеет колоссальное значение для становления и развития единой европейской системы защиты основных прав и свобод человека. Присоединение Евросоюза к Европейской конвенции поддерживается Российской Федерацией как одна из важнейших предпосылок формирования единого правового пространства между Россией и ЕС. Однако такое присоединение вызывает множество вопросов и проблем. В статье предпринята попытка рассмотреть основные группы таких проблем; на основе анализа текста проекта Соглашения о присоединении ЕС к ЕКПЧ ответить на вопрос - какие из них решены в этом документе; выделить вопросы, ответы на которые в проекте Соглашения отсутствуют; предложить пути их разрешения с точки зрения интересов РФ как самого крупного участника Совета Европы. Автор считает необходимым закрепить, что Пояснительный доклад к Соглашению является его составной частью. Целесообразным также представляется внесение в проект Соглашения о присоединении отдельного положения, предусматривающего право на заключение
