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5Kiwi (lat. Actinidia chinensis)
Eliseeva Tatyana, editor-in-chief of the EdaPlus.info project Yampolsky Alexey, nutritionist
E-mail: eliseeva.t@edaplus.info, yampolsky.a@edaplus.info
Abstract. The article discusses the main properties of kiwi and its effect on the human body. A systematic review of modern specialized literature and relevant scientific data was carried out. The chemical composition and nutritional value of the product are indicated, the use of kiwifruit in various types of medicine and the effectiveness of its use in various diseases are considered. The potentially adverse effects of kiwi on the human body under certain medical conditions and diseases are analyzed separately. The scientific foundations of diets with its use are considered.
Key words: kiwi, benefit, harm, beneficial properties, contraindications Beneficial features
Table 1. Chemical composition of kiwi (according to Food+ ).
Main substances (g / 100 g): fresh kiwi
Water 83.07 g
Carbohydrates 14.66 g
Squirrels 1.14 g
Fats 0.52 g
Calories (kcal) 61 kcal
Minerals mg/100 g:
Potassium 312
Phosphorus 34
Magnesium 17
Calcium 34
Sodium 3
Manganese
vitamins mg/100 g:
Vitamin C 92.7
Vitamin E 1.46
Vitamin B4 7.8
Vitamin B3 0.341
Vitamin B5 0.183
The table shows the chemical composition of the green kiwi (Actinidia deliciosa), which is more familiar to us. However, the fruits of the so-called "golden" kiwi (Actinidia chinensis) are no less famous and popular in the world - a fruit with bright yellow flesh and smooth, hairless bronze skin. The chemical composition of these "golden" berries is somewhat different from the composition of green kiwi. But at the same time, it must be borne in mind that other factors also significantly affect the number of components of any fruit: variety, degree of maturity, region of growth, weather conditions, storage features, and others.
In addition, since both "green" and "golden" kiwifruit are usually eaten with the skin removed, the chemical analysis data is given for the edible pulp of the berries. However, today, in various sources, indicators of the composition of the fruit along with the peel are increasingly appearing, which is due to the actively growing number of consumers who prefer to eat kiwi fruit without peeling. First of all, we are talking about the "golden" kiwi, as it has a smoother, thinner and hairless skin. But not everyone cleans green kiwi either. Those who love zero-waste fruit even benefit, because this method allows you to increase the content of fiber, vitamin E and folic acid by 50%, 32% and 34%, respectively. [2]
Both green and golden kiwifruit are exceptionally rich in vitamins C, E, K, folic acid, carotenoids, potassium, fiber, and phytochemicals thought to act synergistically. The overall antioxidant activity of kiwi fruit is higher than that of apple, grapefruit, and pear, although less than that of raspberries, strawberries, oranges, or plums. [3,4] Other kiwi antioxidants include lutein, zeaxanthin and P-carotene, chlorophylls, quinic acid, glucosyl derivatives of caffeic acid, P-sitosterol, chlorogenic acid, phenolic compounds, including flavones and flavonones.
• Vitamin C. Ascorbic acid levels in green Hayward typically range from 70 to 120 mg per 100 g fresh weight. The high content of this vitamin and the low content of tannins in kiwi are thought to explain why the cut fruit does not develop the typical browning reaction seen in most other fruits. [5]
Chinese biologists who studied the genome of kiwi found that first about 50-57 million years ago, and then about 18-20 million years ago, there was a partial doubling of the genome of this plant. Moreover, in addition to other sites, the kiwi genes responsible for the biosynthesis of vitamin C doubled. As a result of evolutionary transformations, today the number of genes associated with the synthesis of vitamin C in kiwi is 3.5-6.5 times higher than the number of similar genes in coffee and grapes . Although once kiwi with coffee and grapes had common ancestors. [6]
• Vitamin E. Both golden and green kiwis contain relatively high levels of vitamin E compared to other fruits - 1.3-1.40 and 1.3-1.46 mg per 100 g, respectively. Mainly in the form of a-tocopherol present in the pulp. [7] A group of Italian researchers showed that a-tocopherol is bound to the cell membranes of the pulp and is bioavailable in this berry. This is indirectly confirmed by an increase in the concentration of vitamin E in the blood plasma after eating both green and golden kiwi.
In addition, the same researchers identified a new form of vitamin E in kiwi fruit, 5-tocomonoenol, noting that its ability to scavenge radicals also markedly affects overall antioxidant activity.
• Folic acid. Kiwifruit is often cited as a good source of folic acid. Since folic acid is easily destroyed by cooking, its presence in green leafy vegetables, which are usually processed, is less valuable than in kiwifruit, which is more often eaten raw. Thus, fresh kiwi fruit can make a
healthy contribution to your overall diet, especially during pregnancy when folic acid requirements become more difficult to meet.
• Alimentary fiber. An analysis of the dietary fibers of the fruits showed that they contain about one third of soluble and two thirds of insoluble fibers. At the same time, the "golden" kiwi contains significantly less fiber than the green one. [8] Dietary fiber in kiwis comes almost entirely from the walls of plant cells (more precisely, from polysaccharides, which form the main structural components of the walls).
When choosing kiwi as a dietary product, it should be taken into account that during fruit ripening, the concentration of starch quickly decreases and the content of fructose and glucose increases, which, among sugars, prevail in kiwi - in some varieties in a ratio of 1: 1. A small amount of sucrose appears when the fruit is ripe and ready to eat. [9]
At the same time, it is interesting that the glycemic index of kiwi is relatively low: green varieties -39.3 ± 4.8, "gold" - 48.5 ± 3.1. [10] A low value of glycemic response to kiwifruit is observed both in healthy people and in people with type 2 diabetes. [eleven]
Medicinal properties
Kiwi, which is part of a healthy diet, can increase the level of "good" cholesterol (high-density lipoprotein) and lower triglyceride levels, inhibit platelet aggregation and lower blood pressure. Eating golden kiwi with iron-rich foods raises low iron levels, while green kiwi promotes digestion and relaxation.
As a rich source of antioxidants, kiwi fruit may protect the body from endogenous oxidative damage. The effects of kiwi fruit on metabolic markers of cardiovascular disease and diabetes are also being investigated, including studies of glucose and insulin balance, body weight maintenance, and energy homeostasis.
Digestion
Of particular interest is kiwifruit to promote normal digestion in both healthy individuals and those with constipation and/or gastrointestinal disorders, including irritable bowel syndrome. The mechanisms of action underlying the change in fecal consistency, shortening of fecal transit time and reduction of abdominal discomfort are related to:
• with the water-retaining capacity of kiwi fiber,
• with favorable changes in the microbial community of the colon and major human metabolites,
• actinidin , unique to kiwi fruits , which promotes protein digestion both in the stomach and in the small intestine.
In other words, there are several plausible mechanisms that can operate both together and separately.
The most important physical and chemical properties of kiwi fibers include hydration properties, which include: water retention, capacity and swelling, viscosity, and properties that depend on the size, shape and porosity of undigested particles. Water retention is of physiological importance as it affects transit time, fecal volume, stool consistency, and other functional benefits.
Experiments have shown that the swelling and water retention of kiwi fiber is higher than, for example, wheat bran dietary fiber, more than 6 times higher than that of apple fiber, and one and a half times higher than that of psyllium (fiber obtained from psyllium husks). ). [12] Kiwi fiber is
fermentable, and many of them have beneficial properties through the production of short-chain fatty acids. [13]
Kiwi fiber may also promote beneficial changes in the human colon microbial community [14] and their metabolites, which are associated with gut health. [fifteen]
Eating 2 green kiwis a day will provide approximately 6g of fiber (24% of the Daily Value), so together with your total dietary fiber intake, this can be a significant contribution to your total daily intake. As noted above, kiwifruits typically contain about two thirds of insoluble fiber and one third of soluble fiber. [16]
In addition, several unique proteins were found in kiwifruit, among which is actinidin (or actinidain), the most common. It is distinguished by its biologically active potential. In an in vitro ("in vitro") model of small intestine digestion, actinidin-containing kiwi fruit extract was particularly effective in improving the digestion of whey protein, zein, gluten, and gliadin. [ 17] Studies show that actinidin assists in the digestion of proteins in the gastric and iliac regions, which may be especially beneficial for people with impaired digestive function. [eighteen]
Thus, based on the accumulated experimental data, we can say that daily consumption of two kiwis increases the frequency of stools, including the number of complete spontaneous bowel movements per week, reduces the time it takes for masses to pass through the gastrointestinal tract, and improves intestinal microflora.
The immune system
Kiwi may be able to support immune function and reduce the frequency and severity of colds or flulike illnesses in at-risk groups. An experimental study of "golden" kiwi fruit showed an increased plasma concentration of vitamin C and a reduction in the severity and duration of symptoms of upper respiratory tract infections in 32 elderly people who received 4 kiwi fruits per day for 4 weeks. [19]
A number of studies have shown that kiwi fruit consumption has a strong effect on plasma and muscle vitamin C levels. [20] Optimal plasma levels of this vitamin in humans are reached at about 200 mg/day, which is equivalent to eating about two kiwi fruit. Eating three or more kiwis per day did not affect the increase in plasma vitamin C.
All this is important because ascorbic acid is absolutely necessary for a number of biological functions. It promotes the formation of collagen for the normal function of blood vessels, bone and cartilage tissue, gums and teeth, and skin. In addition, it provides metabolism, the functioning of the nervous system, helps to normalize the psychological state, reduces fatigue and fatigue, helps regenerate the reduced form of vitamin E, iron absorption, and maintain normal function of the immune system during and after intense physical exercise.
metabolic health
A number of studies have examined the effects of green and golden kiwi on metabolic markers such as glucose and insulin balance, weight maintenance, and energy homeostasis.
Current research indicates that the glycemic response of kiwifruit as a whole food is different from what would be expected from its individual components. [21] Regular consumption of green and golden kiwi fruit appears to have beneficial effects on several physiological biomarkers, especially in individuals with metabolic disorders associated with diabetes, cardiovascular disease, stroke, and
dementia. [22] In a number of human studies, positive changes in cardiovascular disease biomarkers have been attributed to antioxidant compounds present in kiwi fruit. [23]
Oncology
The effect of kiwi fruits on cancer is usually spoken of with caution, separating direct and indirect anticancer effects.
• The direct ones are probably associated with a decrease in oxidative damage to DNA (which is provided by exposure to ascorbic acid) and a cytotoxic effect on cancer cell lines.
• Indirect ones are most likely associated with increased daily bowel movements and an increased content of lactic acid bacteria in intestinal feces, which ultimately helps to reduce the risk of malignant neoplasms, especially colorectal cancer.
Results from human studies on the antioxidant efficacy of kiwi fruit are inconsistent due to differences in experimental protocols, the kiwi variety used, the number and duration of the study, and the biomarkers used. However, taken together, the results of these published studies show that adding kiwi fruit to the diet still has the potential to have direct or indirect anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory effects.
In particular, the kissper peptide found in kiwifruit is of particular interest for human health in this sense, as it exhibits a number of beneficial actions, including an anti-inflammatory response, a decrease in oxidative stress at the border of the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract. [24] Although it is too early to speak with confidence about the established therapeutic effects in this regard.
Use in medicine
In modern official medicine, kiwi is not used. In the thematic literature, the herbal preparation polygamol is mentioned, which was created on the basis of an extract of a related kiwi plant, also belonging to the genus Actinidia. This drug for injection is recommended by manufacturers, primarily as a diuretic and immunomodulatory agent. However, among its therapeutic effects, stimulation of the activity of the heart muscle is also noted.
Extracts of the actual Actinidia deliciosa (kiwi familiar to us) are also on sale. They are intended for both external and internal use, however, cosmetology is called the main area for the use of such an extract.
In folk medicine
For traditional medicine, kiwi berries in their modern form are a very "young" product. Firstly, until the beginning of the 20th century, the large sweet and sour kiwi fruits familiar to us did not yet exist. Woody vines of the genus Actinidia, growing in China, gave not very tasty small 20-30 gram berries, which were called, respectively, " Chinese gooseberries ". And, secondly, even when breeders bred plant varieties with delicious berries, they reached the shelves of our country for more than a decade. As a result, an independent history of the use of kiwi in traditional medicine has practically not had time to form.
Modern folk healers prescribe kiwi, either adhering to general scientific ideas (or assumptions) about this product, or by analogy with other products, which also contain large amounts of vitamins C, E, B9, as well as minerals potassium, magnesium, sodium, calcium, phosphorus, etc. For example, a rich
vitamin composition makes it possible to recommend kiwi as a tonic and multivitamin remedy during periods of seasonal beriberi.
Sometimes kiwi fruits are tried to be used by analogy with the fruits of related vines of the genus Actinidia growing in the Far East. In the Far Eastern tradition, the berries of the plant are used much more widely:
• With diseases of the joints, rheumatism, gout.
• With internal bleeding - gastric, intestinal, pulmonary, uterine.
• In diseases of the respiratory tract of various nature: tuberculosis, whooping cough, asthma.
• When parasites are found (as an antihelminthic).
• With toothache and enamel damage.
The juice of such wild berries lowers blood pressure and increases appetite. And an infusion of them in small doses is drunk for the prevention of cancer.
With regard to store-bought kiwis, there is usually no special way to consume them. In most cases - to improve digestion or normalize blood pressure - 2-3 fruits are simply added to the usual set of products. An exception here is the appointment of kiwi to get rid of heartburn - then it is recommended to finish the meal with one small fruit.
in oriental medicine
The early Chinese pharmacopoeia, dating back to the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), lists a whole range of medicines with mihoutao, the Chinese name commonly used for actinidia (kiwi) species. Among the therapeutic effects most often mentioned are:
• aid in digestion
• reduction of discomfort and pain in the upper abdomen,
• getting rid of vomiting
• decrease in the level of irritability.
Traditional Chinese medicine in ancient times found that "Chinese gooseberry" has cold properties that are good for the spleen, liver, stomach. Today, too, it is believed that kiwi balances the stomach and spleen, soothes the liver, thereby improving the functioning of the digestive system. In the early stages of stomach cancer or after surgery and chemotherapy, eating two or three kiwis can help reduce nausea and improve digestion.
According to traditional Chinese medicine, kiwi helps the body fight cancer cells and is suitable as a daily food for people with a predominance of "heat" suffering from stomach cancer. However, with an excess of "coldness" of the body, kiwi in the diet should be limited, otherwise overeating can provoke diarrhea.
In scientific research
To date, there are many human clinical studies on fresh green kiwifruit. These studies were conducted in different countries and included different populations (for example, groups differing in age, health status, etc.). The effect of kiwi consumption on the serum lipid profile and antioxidant status, on the state of the cardiovascular system and the ability to cause an antithrombotic effect, on the function of the digestive tract (especially often) was studied.
Most studies have looked at the effects of long-term consumption of kiwi, but some studies have also examined the body's "quick" response to the berry. So, for example, the effects of eating green kiwi on gastric emptying after eating a large portion of steak were evaluated. Based on the results of the study, the researchers concluded that green kiwi fruits containing actinidin can significantly reduce bloating and other indicators of gastric discomfort in healthy men. [25]
In Taiwan, scientists studied the effects of two kiwi fruit on lipid profile, antioxidants, and markers of lipid peroxidation in adult men and women with hyperlipidemia. After 8 weeks of taking kiwi, the concentration of high-density lipoprotein was significantly increased. Vitamins C and E, nutritional
antioxidants along with plasma antioxidant status also increased significantly in fasting blood samples.
[26]
Another group of scientists found that consumption of two green kiwi fruit per day for 4 weeks had a beneficial effect on plasma lipids in a randomized controlled trial involving 85 patients with normal blood pressure and patients with hypertensive hypercholesterolemia. [27] In particular, an increase in the level of "good" cholesterol has been noted. However, there were no significant differences between the two groups between plasma cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein, insulin, glucose sensitivity, C-reactive protein, blood pressure. And with further research, there was not even a positive effect on markers of cardiovascular function or blood pressure indicators. [28]
However, in some studies by other authors, a positive effect was recorded. So, in 2012, in experiments with volunteers, it was demonstrated that taking three kiwi fruits a day for 3 weeks contributed to a pronounced antihypertensive and antithrombotic effect in middle-aged and elderly male smokers . [29] The authors noted that this dietary approach may help delay pharmacological treatment in people with high blood pressure.
The potential cardiovascular protective properties of kiwifruit extracts were first demonstrated in vitro. [thirty] And evidence that kiwifruit consumption can modulate platelet reactivity towards collagen has been found in experiments with volunteers. [31] In their work, the authors concluded that kiwi could potentially be used for the prevention of thrombosis. The habitual consumption of large amounts of fruits and vegetables has long been associated with positive effects in reducing the risk of chronic diseases. And the presence of antioxidant components such as vitamins C and E, polyphenols, a favorable Na+/K+ ratio, and other bioactive components of kiwi may explain their beneficial physiological effects.
To measure the contribution of golden kiwifruit to dietary vitamin C absorption, plasma levels were measured in a group of 14 male students with initially low levels of this vitamin (mean baseline plasma level 38 mM). Participants were asked to eat half a kiwi a day for 4 weeks, two kiwis a day for 6 weeks, and finally three kiwis a day for 4 weeks. Adding just half a kiwi fruit to the daily diet resulted in a significant increase in plasma vitamin C. To achieve what is considered a healthy level, one piece of fruit per day was required. [32]
And another experiment showed that high levels of vitamin C in kiwifruit can improve the bioavailability of iron. [33] The study included 89 healthy women with low iron status (serum ferritin (SF) < 25 ng/l and hemoglobin (Hb) > 115 g/l) for 16 weeks. Some of them ate 2 kiwis for breakfast along with iron-fortified cereal. The control group was given bananas instead of kiwi.
After 16 weeks, in the kiwi fruit group, the mean serum ferritin level increased significantly from 17.0 Hg/l (at baseline) to 25.0 |ig/l compared to the banana group. There, the mean serum ferritin level was 16.5 p,g/L at baseline, rising to 17.5 p,g/L by the end of the study. Importantly, a 10mcg/L increase in serum ferritin in women who ate kiwi resulted in levels rising to the normal range of 20-160mg/L.
Weight regulation
Kiwi in weight loss programs is one of the most popular products. Firstly, these berries have a relatively low calorie content - about 55-60 kcal / 100 g. And, secondly, it is believed that due to the large amount of vegetable fibers in kiwi, it is easier for dieters to control appetite and achieve satiety.
Meanwhile, there is no direct experimental evidence that adding kiwi to the diet subjectively suppresses the feeling of hunger. The results of some studies explicitly indicate that these expected effects were not recorded.
Nevertheless, as a product that can significantly diversify the menu, while providing the body with vitamins and minerals, kiwi can be included in diets aimed at getting rid of extra pounds. In addition, kiwi can bring benefits in losing weight, even if you just add 1-2 berries to your daily diet without changing it in any way. This effect is created due to the improvement of metabolism with regular use of the berry.
In cooking
Kiwi is not called the "Chinese gooseberry" for nothing. Its taste reminds many at the same time of gooseberries, bananas, strawberries, melons, pineapples, cherries, apples. Gourmets for eating these fruits in their raw form use a special spoon with miniature notches along the rim. But, like other fruits, kiwi can be processed into jelly, made into jam, added to dessert salads.
There are quite a few recipes for desserts using kiwi. This fruit is suitable for filling pies, it can also be used to make jams and marmalades. There is also a whole group of kiwi-based alcoholic and nonalcoholic drinks that are made on an industrial scale.
Recently, kiwi has become a popular product for marinating tough meat on kebabs. Kiwi pulp actinidin can destroy protein fibers and soften even very tough steaks in just 10-15 minutes.
In cosmetology
Cosmetology is perhaps the most popular related application of fresh kiwi fruits and their extracts. Actinidin, ascorbic acid, alpha-hydroxy acids are indicated as active substances in the instructions for extracts. It is assumed that with their help, kiwi extract:
• effectively brightens the skin and eliminates pigmentation,
• exfoliates dead cells
• protects from solar ultraviolet radiation,
• promotes the production and protection of collagen.
As a result of using the extract, the skin should acquire an even color, become elastic, toned and radiant.
For the same purpose as extracts, fresh kiwi is used in home cosmetology. Fruits cut into slices are applied to the face for nourishment and moisturizing, kiwi cubes are rubbed on the skin, and the grated pulp is mixed with various additional ingredients (eggs, honey, other fruits) to create healing, regenerating and skin-smoothing masks.
But not all cosmetologists are equally positive about the use of kiwi as a face mask. This practice has critics who argue that the actinidin in the formulation does more harm than good. Actinidin, as a sufficiently concentrated mixture of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase, destroys proteins and, in
addition to an allergic reaction, can cause serious skin damage. In the beauty industry, to eliminate possible side effects in regenerating and healing masks and creams, kiwi extracts without actinidin and calcium oxalate are usually used.
Dangerous properties of kiwi and contraindications
Kiwi-specific protein actinidain may be an allergen for some people (including children). The most common symptoms of such an allergic reaction are itching and difficulty breathing. However, in severe cases, it can lead to wheezing and anaphylaxis. [34]
However, most people take the actinidain found in kiwi fruit without any side effects. In all likelihood, the magnitude and nature of reactivity to kiwi allergens depends on ethnic (geographical) differences, the age of people and some other clinical characteristics. Some studies have also noted that heat treatment of the product may reduce the risk of symptoms in people who are allergic to raw fruits.
[35,36]
Since kiwi berries have a high concentration of ascorbic acid, people suffering from kidney disease, gastritis, and peptic ulcer should drink fruit juice with caution. To reduce the risk of side effects, this juice can be diluted with water.
Selection and storage
When choosing kiwis, they follow the general rules for buying fruits - that is, they prefer fruits without damage, dark spots, mold, wrinkles or rot. But, in addition to this, there are specific signs for determining high-quality ripe kiwi.
• The skin of the ripened fruit has an even brown color and is covered with hard hairs that can be easily peeled off. The skin of an unripe fruit will be greenish, and there will be noticeably fewer hairs on it.
• Ripened fruits will give in slightly under the fingers when pressed. Accordingly, the unripe ones will seem too hard - not pushable, and the overripe ones will give in too easily, and a dent will remain at the place of indentation.
• The smell of a fairly ripe fruit will be felt as a light citrus, melon or strawberry aroma (different associations may arise). The smell of overripe is like sharply sweet with hints of fermentation.
However, some people still consciously prefer very soft fruits, while others, for various reasons, specifically choose slightly unripe ones, in order to then, if necessary, ripen them.
In the refrigerator in the fruit compartment, kiwi fruit can be stored for at least a week without harm to consumer qualities. With good air exchange and isolation from strong-smelling foods, these fruits can lie in the refrigerator for up to a month. But if such unripe berries need to be quickly brought to a state of ripeness, then they can simply be removed from the refrigerator and put in the same dish with apples, pears, apricots or bananas, which emit ethylene gas that accelerates ripening.
An increasing body of research data and growing consumer awareness of the health benefits of kiwi provide a logical motivation for consuming the fruit regularly and including it in a balanced diet. And future research on the kiwi fruit will likely only increase the popularity of this exotic berry.
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An extended HTML version of this article is available on the edaplus.info website. Kiwi - useful properties, composition and contraindications
Eliseeva Tatyana, editor-in-chief of the project EdaPlus.info Yampolsky Aleksey, nutritionist
E-mail: eliseeva.t@edaplus.info, yampolsky.a@edaplus.info
Received 05.03.202 1
Abstract. The article discusses the main properties of kiwi and its effect on the human body. A systematic review of modern specialized literature and relevant scientific data was carried out. The chemical composition and nutritional value of the product are indicated, the use of kiwi fruit in various types of medicine and the effectiveness of its use in various diseases are considered. The potentially adverse effects of kiwi on the human body under certain medical conditions and diseases are analyzed separately. Considered scientific basics diets With his application.
