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COMMUNICATIONS AND COMPUTERS FROM A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Khromoy Boris Petrovich,
Ph.D., Professor, Moscow Technical University of Communication and Informatics, Moscow, Russia, mtuci@mtuci.ru
Keywords: communications technology, computers, computer equipment.
For the first time about the impact of communications technology on the development of computers in their scientific publications said is not far away N. Wiener. Norbert Wiener, father of the founder Cybernetics as a separate independent science. You should pay attention also to the fact, that N. Wiener was associated with the communication engineering, not only the development of management theory, but of applied mathematics and computing machines. In the first half of the XIX century communication between the electric and magnetic phenomena was open. It allowed to create telegraph on the basis of transfer of electric signals on communication lines. Since then telecommunication area is called as telegraphy engaged in transfer of discrete messages. Discrete messages represent sequences of symbols (letters, figures, signs). Experience in communication technology has been used to encode information in the computer. Coding in computing different from the coding in telegraphy.There are different ways to encode and decode the information in the computer. It depends on the type of data: text, numbers, graphics or sound. On the computer to work with audio files started in the 90s. Sound card modern computer has an input to which an analog audio signal is supplied. In addition to the technical advantages (small size, large memory) use of CD will allow consumers to record your own sound information. Application of PC created an opportunity not only to record information, but also to process the audio signal using a very sophisticated programs. Besides flash memory devices, intended to be installed in the connector USB, currently produces a wide range of flash memory cards. After completing a brief overview of the history of the external memory can go to the assessment of the progress of devices internal memory. In addition to the impact on the development of television and computer technologies have made a real revolution in mobile communication systems. Computer equipment, borrowed at certain stages of development of a number of important theoretical and constructive solutions of communications technology, in addition to a significant contribution to the development of civilization, has revolutionized the very communications technology, or as it is now customary to say in today's infocommunications.
Для цитирования:
Khromoy B.P. Communications and computers from a historical perspective // T-Comm: Телекоммуникации и транспорт. - 2016. -Том 10. - №3. - С. 82-88.
For citation:
Хромой Б.П. История развития вычислительной техники и связи. T-Comm. 2016. Vol. 10. No.3. Pp. 82-88.
Since 1940 year, Mr. Wiener has paid attention to the development of computing machines for solving differential equations in partial derivatives. The main was the problem of representation of functions of several variables. N. Wiener writes: "I was also convinced that reality TV will bring the technique more useful the creation of such new processes, than in it self, as a special branch".
Next N. Wiener sets out requirements for the design of computing machines:
1. Central adder and multiplier devices must be digital.
2. These devices are essentially switches, should consist of electronic tubes.
3. Should be used more economical binary, not base-ten system.
4. The sequence of actions should be planned in the machine. All logic should be done by the machine itself.
5. The machine must contain a device for storing data. This product should quickly write, surely store up to erase, quickly to read.
It is obvious that the main part of the listed positions, formulated with regard to computing machines, the result of the experience and known at the time of promising solutions in communications technology. This electron tube designed to solve problems of communication, this and economical binary system numeration, this and storage device for more economical binary instead of decimal number system storing data.
Questions raised by N. Wiener, deserve a more detailed study of the historical aspect. It is advisable to begin consideration of the provisions put forward is not far away from the approval of the feasibility of use in computers, more economical binary instead of decimal number system.
Presentation of information in the binary system has been used by man since ancient times. Polynesian islanders pass the necessary information with the help of the drums, change of loud and weak sounds. The sound over a water surface extended on rather long distance, thus the Polynesian telegraph "worked".
In the first half of the XIX century communication between the electric and magnetic phenomena was open. It allowed to create telegraph on the basis of transfer of electric signals on communication lines. The binary numeral system started being applied for the first time in the telegraph of S. Morse, which patented it in the USA in 1837. Big achievement of Morse is the invention of a telegraph code, where letters of the alphabet were presented by a combination of points and a dash (Morse Code). Modern option Morse Code of the (International Morse) appeared rather recently - in 1939 year when the last adjustment was carried out it. In Morse's telegraph of a point and dash - it is signals differing from each other only in duration and divided among themselves by pauses. Different combinations of points and dash transferred all letters of the Latin alphabet figures, punctuation marks. However in the Russian alphabet there were letters which aren't present in Latin therefore in the Russian version of the Morse alphabet for them the combinations of points and a dash are created. These are letters Ч, Ш, Э, Ю, Я.
Since then telecommunication area is called as telegraphy engaged in transfer of discrete messages. Discrete messages represent sequences of symbols (letters, figures, signs). For transfer of symbols on communication channels use discrete electric signals - signal in which the final number of values of its parameters, for example. To each symbol a certain combination of signals is put in compliance. Communication system between the characters of the alphabet messages and discrete signals called code.Set of the discrete signals corresponding to a certain symbol is called as a code combination. Symbols of the alphabet can be numbered by a natural number sequence, for example a =1, b=2, v = 3.... Each number can be conveniently represented in binary form, i.e., A - 001, B - 010, V - 011 ...Ease of representation of numbers in binary is that a logical "1" and "0" is easy to assign a simple electrical signals. For example, "1" may be transmitted pulse of positive polarity and "0" pulses of negative polarity. Thus, the terms: binary system, code, combination was decisive in telegraphy long before the advent of electric computers.
The minimum required number of simvol in a code combination - n -determined by the volume of the alphabet - (number of symbols) - N and it is calculated by the expression n = log2N. For example , for transmission of 32 letters in the alphabet is equal to the number n = log2 32 = 5. The telegraph USSR was applied code that uses a sequence of unipolar parcels DC pulse number in a codeword = 5 . For example, the letter "P" of the Russian alphabet correspond codeword 01010 , the letter "Я " - 11101 , etc. Under actual conditions as a rule, the codeword in addition to the information packages, those by which the characters are encoded directly, also includes sending service, necessary for the operation of the terminal telegraph equipment. As a result, the codeword comprises seven binary pulse - five information and two service information.
Experience in communication technology has been used to encode information in the computer. In computing has its own coding system - it is called a binary - coded and is based on the representation of the data sequence only two digits: 0 and 1. These signs are called binary digits, in English - binary digit abbreviated bit. One bit can be expressed by two terms: 0 or1 (yes or no, black or white, true or false, etc.). The negative quality of binary encoding - long codes. But in the computer easier to deal with a large number of simple elements of the same type, than with a small number of complex.
Coding in computing different from the coding in telegraphy.There are different ways to encode and decode the information in the computer. It depends on the type of data: text, numbers, graphics or sound. Solving these problems led to a significant development of the technique of encoding and decoding information, compared with Telegraph. For example, the transmission of figures on the telegraph line is no different from the transmission of the text. The situation is different with the introduction of numbers into a computer. The number is entered into the computer by pressing key, but in the first case, it should be reflected on the screen as displayed any letter of the alfovit, in the latter case it must be used in the calculations.
When you press the keyboard made coding textual information. The signal is sent to the computer as a binary number, which is stored in the code table. Code table - it is an internal representation of characters in the computer. The standard adopted by the world's ASCII table (American Standart Code for Information Interchange). To store the binary code of the character allocated 1 byte = 8 bits. Since one bit is 0 or1, with a single byte can encode 256 different characters, because it is so much different code combinations can be formed. These combinations make up a table ASCII. For example, a code S letter 01010011; when you press it on the keyboard decodes the binary code, and it builds character image on the monitor screen.
ASCII standard defines the first 128 characters: numbers, letters of the alphabet , the control characters. The second half of the code table is not defined the American standard and is intended for national symbols, pseudographics and some non-mathematical symbols. Different countries may use different variants of the second half of the code table. The numbers are coded according to this standard in the input-output and if they occur in the text. If they are involved in the calculations, it is carried out conversion into another binary code.
For comparison, consider two versions of the coding for the number 45. When used in the text of each digit is coded by 8 bits in accordance with the ASCII (hose. It requires 2 bytes): 4 - 01000011, 5 - 01010011. When used in the calculation of the number of code is obtained by special rules translation from decimal to binary number system in the form of 8 - bit binary number 4510 = 001011012, requiring 1 byte.
Graphical object in the computer can be represented as raster or vector image. It depends on this coding method. Raster image is a collection of points called pixels (pixel, from the English picture element) of different colors. The volume bitmap is equal to the product of the number of points on information volume of one point which depends on the number of possible colors. For black
and white (without semitones) pixel can take only two values: black and white (lights - is not lit), but enough to encode one bit of memory: 1 - white, 0 - black.
Pixel color display can have different colors , so a single bit per pixel insufficiently. To encode a 4 - color images are required, two bits per pixel, since two bits can take four different states. For the image pixel in 8 colors you need - 3 bits; to 16 colors - 4 bits; for 256 colors - 8 bit (1 byte). Various colors are obtained from the three major - red (Red), green (Green), blue (Blue). It should be noted that the basic principles of both black and white and color raster images in the computer based on the achievements of television. The situation is different vector images.
Vector image is a graphical object consisting of elementary segments and arcs. The position of these elementary objects defined by the coordinates of points and the length of the radius. For each line indicates the type (solid, dotted, dot - dashed) , the thickness and color. Information about the vector image is encoded as a conventional alphanumeric and processed by special programs.
On the computer to work with audio files started in the 90s. The basis of digital audio coding is - the process of sampling the analog electrical signal. This is done with the help of the analog - to - digital converter (ADC), located on the sound card. Continuous dependence of the signal amplitude of the time is replaced by a sequence of discrete volume levels. Modern 16 - bit sound card is coded 65536 different volume levels or 16 -bit depth of sound (each value of the amplitude of the audio signal is assigned a 16 - bit code). The quality of audio coding depends on: the number of recorded sound levels and frequencies of sampling. The theoretical and technical fundamentals of analog - digital and digital -to - analogue reverse transformation sound were laid in the field of communication. But the solution to the problem of storage of digital audio information and its treatment are associated with the development of computers.
Sound card modern computer has an input to which an analog audio signal is supplied. This signal is subjected to conversion in an ADC and then digitally processed using software hosted on computer. The processed signal may be stored in digital form on the respective storage devices, as well as it can be returned to a sound card , subjected to analog conversion (DAC), and enter the analog output. With the help of sound - reproducing transducer (speaker) is formed acoustic signal. Thus, any computer user can with the help of modern programs necessary to implement their own audio processing. It should be noted that in communications ADC and DAC implemented in professional equipment communication channels and digital signal processing ordinary consumer was not available .
These data allow to conclude that the high efficiency of encoding information using the binary system. However, the question remains about the economy applying a binary system. Indeed, to display a specific number in the binary system, it is necessary to apply a much larger number of characters than for example in decimal. The use of the binary system in S. Morse telegraph was forced, because the actuator - electromagnetic relays had only two stable states. However, further development of communications technology, which led to the invention of wireless telegraphy, identified the need to store information.
To store the information you need a device with several stable states. The simplest device is a bistable states. His role in the early stages of development communication could perform an electromagnetic relay and a magnetic core. However, an important stage in the development of storage devices was the invention of the cathode lamps. In 1916, MA Bonch- Bruyevich produced Russia's first cathode lamp. And in 1917 he published 'The use of cathode relay in the radiotelegraphy reception". Under the cathode relay is a device consisting of two lamps having two stable equilibria.
A year later, American physicists W. Ikklz and F Jordan demonstrated the use of a pair of cathode lamps to create an electronic relay. Currently, such a device is called a "trigger". A distinctive feature of the trigger as a functional
device is a property of storing binary information. Under the memory flip-flop is meant the ability to remain in one of two states after the termination of the gating signal. Having one of the states of "1" and the other for the "0", it can be assumed that the trigger stores (remember) one digit numbers written in binary code.
Status trigger can be used for registration of incoming signals. If you use more than one trigger, and a series of flip-flops connected in series, they can be used to count the number of received signals, and to store information about this amount, that is to store numbers. Theoretically, all of the same functions can be performed and an electromechanical relay, but the rate trigger even in those years was 10 thousand times higher than the speed of response of the best relay.
The main disadvantage of an electronic trigger in the 1920-1950 years, was its high cost. Thus, for example, to store a ten - digit decimal number required about one hundred cathode lamps, that for decades did not allow even very large corporations use electronic triggers. Therefore, in the period of 1920-1950 years in Germany, the UK, the US and the USSR were developed first, electromechanical, and then relay computers, in which the role of elements for storing and processing data carried electromechanical relay. In 1945, the United States built the first computer, called ENIAC (Electronic Numerical lne-grator and Computer). At the heart of its construction it was used lamp triggers.
Another important application of computers were flops forming apparatus clock. They are based on a clock pulse generator, also called clock. This device generates electrical impulses given frequency (usually rectangular) to synchronize various processes in digital devices - computers, digital clock and timer, microprocessor and other digital technology. Clock pulses are often used as the reference frequency - counting the number can, for example, to measure time intervals.
The microprocessor technology one clock pulse generally corresponds to one operation. Processing of one instruction can be carried out in one or more cycles of the microprocessor, depending on the architecture and the type of instruction. The frequency of the clock determines the rate calculation.
Modern motherboards need to have a large number of different frequencies, in addition to supporting the system bus frequency. Generation chip is a chip, which when connected to the inputs of its quartz crystal to give a specific frequency and the frequency of the findings on the remaining one, divided or multiplied by the original. If the electronic circuit is necessary to divide the frequency by two, is used to trigger T- mode counter pulses. Accordingly, to increase the divider increase the number of series-connected counters (triggers).
It should be noted that the methods and the signal generating circuit, dividing and multiplying the frequency used in modern computers were first developed and used in various devices, communication equipment .
The first electronic computer storage devices used exclusively for storage of data being processed. Heir programs were implemented in hardware in the form prescribed sequences performed. Any reprogramming required a huge volume of manual work on the preparation of new documentation, restructuring units and devices, and so on.
In 1945 J. von Neumann developed a new computer architecture, applied in the computer EDVAC. This computer was one of the first machines with the stored program, i.e., with a program stored in the memory and not read from the punched card or other similar device. These principles are as follows:
1. The main blocks of the von Neumann machines are control unit, arithmetic logic unit, memory and input-output device.
2. The information is encoded in binary form and is divided into units called words .
3. The algorithm is represented as a sequence of control words that determine the meaning of the operation. These control words are called teams. Teams representing an algorithm called program.
Using the von Neumann architecture, provided for storing computer programs and data in shared memory. It fundamentally changed the further devel-
opment of computer hardware and in particular storage device (memory). Requirements of computer technology in the storage devices of various types and prospects of their use have caused the rapid development of semiconductor technologies and microcircuitry. This technological revolution has created a modern computers, but also significantly influenced the development of communications technology In particular the progress in the field of storage devices has allowed to create a digital TV It is interesting to review options for construction of modern storage and general principles of constructing them with the analog storage devices designed for communications equipment.
In earlier types of memory with more memory used magnetic tape. In these memories the information recorded on the magnetic thin coating of plastic tape which is wound on a reel.To access the recorded information is applied the tape drive. It is possible to read and write information from rewinds the tape under computer control. The main disadvantage of this type of memory is a significant investment of time required to rewind the tape. The operating principle of this device is widely used in communications technology in the audio and video recorders, but these devices to record analog signals.
Over the years, tape has been widely used to store information. For personal computers has been developed a device called a "floppy disk", which is widely used for a number of years. The most widely used three-inch floppy disk (size - 3.5 inches, memory - 1.44 MB). Information on the disk coated with a magnetic layer, recorded on concentric tracks. Information on the diskette can be written and rewritten. Floppy disks were used for the exchange of information between PCs and storage of archival information. We can assume the floppy inventions for the computer, but the principle of recording on a rotating disk, similar to the principle of sound recording on a phonograph record, is used in the old days in the communications technology. However, although the recording itself was carried out on a magnetic carrier in tape, but in digital form.
The next step in the development of storage devices was the invention of the CD. There are various types of discs under the name: CD, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD. Disc types CD (Compact Disk) is a disk from which you can only read information. It is made with a die and a matrix. With such a drive on your computer, you can play the audio recording. Disc type CD-R (Compact Disk Recordable) and allows read and write information. Disc CD-RW (Compact Disk ReWriteable) allows multiple read and write information. Type disc DVD (Digital Versatible Disk) has a high recording density. The amount of information recorded on the disc, up to 4.7 GB.
The invention and mass production of CDs has allowed to solve many of the problems associated with recording and reproducing information in personal computers, and led to the solution of a number of topical problems in communication. It should be noted the fact of mass use in consumer CD audio and television equipment. Over the years, the basic recording and playback of sound was shellac. Recording a music piece on a phonograph record was car-lied out in the factory. The user was able to just play a recording. CD invention revolutionized the field of recording .
In addition to the technical advantages (small size, large memory) use of CD will allow consumers to record your own sound information. Application of PC created an opportunity not only to record information, but also to process the audio signal using a very sophisticated programs. Extensive production of laser players led to the replacement of all electrical equipment sound reproduction. In addition to all the benefits to records CD allows unlimited copying records, and use the Internet free recording a large number of musical works.
Ability to use a CD for recording television signals a revolution in the field of video recording and video playback. CD to a certain time interval is widely used for signal recording in video cameras, and so far is the main device for recording movies. Using a PC, each user has the technical ability to copy movies.
The next step in the development of storage devices was the invention of flash memory. Flash memory has been opened Fuji Masuoka (Fujio Masuoka), when
he worked at Toshiba in 1984 year. The name "flash" was coined because the erasure process of the memory contents reminds flash. Intel saw great potential in the invention and in 1988 released the first commercial flash chip.
Flash memory stores information in an array of floating gate transistors, called cells. In traditional single-level cell devices, each of which can store only one bit. Some of the new multi-level cell devices can store more than one bit by using a different level of electrical charge on the floating gate transistor.
Flash memory is best known in the use of USB Flash media (Eng. USB flash drive). Flash memory devices, connected to the computer via USB. It high speed, large volume of information, and compact size USB Flash - media completely ousted from the market floppy. For example, Dell has since 2003 ceased to produce computers with floppy disks.
Currently, flash memory devices manufactured by more than 20 manufacturers. Among the most famous Samsung, Intel, Toshiba, Sandisk. The main advantage of flash memory before CD is that it consumes much less energy during operation, since there is no need for driving the mechanics and more compact. FLASH - memory - volatile memory. To overwrite the data must be submitted to a special entrance FLASH-memory programming voltage (12V), which eliminates the possibility of accidental erasure of data.
Besides flash memory devices, intended to be installed in the connector USB, currently produces a wide range of flash memory cards . The most common types of flash cards today are CompactFlash (CF), SmartMedia (SM), Secure approved Digital (SD), MultiMediaCard (MMC) and Memory Stick (MS), which differ from each other interfaces, size, read / write speed and capacity as possible. Flash cards can be installed directly into the slots of the motherboard. Available card capacity of 128 GB with a speed of recording and reading in the tens of MB/s .
In 2003, the standard was developed miniSD. Dimensions cards miniSD -20 х 21,5 х 1,4 mm. Currently available cards microSD. These cards are one of the smallest flash memory cards - the dimensions of 11 ? 15 ? 1 mm. This type of memory is widely used in modern smartphones, and will significantly improve their performance. Using a special adapter, microSD can be installed in the camera and video camera and a normal SD slot PC that allows you to record and retrieve desired information. Thus, the production of flash memories of different types, developed for the realization of computer technology has led to substantial upgrading communication equipment.
After completing a brief overview of the history of the external memory can go to the assessment of the progress of devices internal memory. First of all, it should be noted achievements in improving the computer's hard disk (HDD or hard drive). The hard drive is used to store the information after turning off the computer. According to the complexity of the device hard drive, it is a real piece of engineering.
HDD - storage device (storage device), a random access based on the principle of magnetic recording . Unlike diskettes, the information is recorded in the HDD on the hard aluminum or glass) plate, coated with a layer of ferromagnetic material, usually chromium dioxide - magnetic disks. Magnetic disks are placed on an axis and rotating at high speed. There are standards for speed of rotation. Laptops maximum rotational speed of 7200, 10,000 personal computers, servers and 15,000 rev/min.
The principle of operation is similar to the hard drive principle of the tape. Writing information is carried out on the influence of electromagnetic ferromagnetic head supported on the disk surface, and the resulting change in the direction of the magnetization vector of domains depending on the magnitude of the signal. Similarly, using the electromagnetic heads read information carried.
Although the principle of magnetic recording was known before the hard drive in communications technology, its hardware improvement was associated with the development of computers. Dimensions of progress can be estimated from the following example. In 1956, as part of the first serial computer IBM
305 was applied 350 IBM hard drive. He drive took a box the size of a large refrigerator and had a weight of 971 kg, volume of 3.5 MB of recorded information . In 2011 - Seagate introduced the world's first 3.5-inch drive with 4 terabytes of recorded information/
List all the improvements which have led to such progress is not possible in a short article, but their volume can be represented on the basis of two examples. In modern HDD perpendicular recording method is applied - technology, in which information bits are stored in vertical domains. This allows you to use stronger magnetic fields and reduce the area of the material necessary for recording one bit. Already in the first samples in 2009 was the recording density of 400 Gbit / dyuym? , the theoretical limit of 1 Tbit / dyuym? .
Hard drives with perpendicular recording became available on the market since 2006. Thanks to perpendicular recording HDD capacity continues to break records, size 8 or even 10 Terabytes.
As a second example, the mechanical design. As mentioned maximum speed drives in the HDD reaches 15,000 revolutions / min. At this speed, unacceptable mechanical contact with the surface of the read head disk. Read heads in operation do not touch the surface of the plates due to the interlayer of air flow generated at the surface by rapid rotation, which ensures a long service life of the device. The distance between the head and the disk in the current HDD about 10 nm. In the absence of rotation of the drive head are outside the disk in a safe area where they excluded non-standard contact with the surface of the disc. In addition to the HDD in the modern computers play an important role "prompt" memory. This type of memory is another name RAM(Random Access Memory). For from it to the processor receives the program and input data to be processed, it writes it in the results. The name "prompt" this memory is associated with a high rate of her work. Thanks RAM is practically no delay in the CPU when reading data from memory or write to memory. A feature of memory is that the data contained therein are kept only as long as the computer is on or before pressing the reset button (reset). When you turn off the computer contents of RAM is erased. Therefore, before turning or pressing the reset button, all data subjected to changes during pre - stored in the memory. With the new power
- stored information can be re - loaded into memory.
The speed depends on the computer's RAM. It depends on the choice of programs, which can operate a computer. With low memory, many programs either do not work or will work very slowly. Over the years, computer RAM to be small. Wave technology boom has reached RAM.
The development of production has caused a fall in prices, and every year the amount of RAM installed in computers grew. If the normal operation of the old Windows 95 was required amount of RAM 16 MB, for the normal operation of modern computers is required memory from 4 to 6 GB.
All the random access memory (RAM) can be divided into two types: DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (static RAM). Dynamic random access memory (Dynamic RAM - DRAM) used in most systems memory of personal computers. The main advantage of this type of memory is that its cell packed very densely, and thus on this basis we can construct a large memory capacity.
The memory cells in the DRAM chip - is tiny capacitors which hold a charge. Problems, associated with this type of memory, due to the fact that it is dynamic, i.e. it must continually be regenerated, since otherwise the electric charges in the storage capacitors are "drain", and the data will be lost. In DRAM devices to store one bit is used only a single transistor and capacitor pair, therefore more capacious than other types of memory chips.
The static random access memory (SRAM, static random access memory)
- a semiconductor memory, in which each bit is stored in the circuit with positive feedback, which allows to maintain a state with no regeneration required in the heap (DRAM). Static memory cell can be represented as electronic microelements - triggers consisting of transistors. The trigger is stored not charge, and status (on/off switch). Nevertheless, the store data without overwriting the
SRAM can only while there is voltage, that is the type SRAM is volatile memory. For SRAM is characterized by low density recording (six to eight elements on bits instead of two DRAM) and as a consequence of the high price.
Finishing the review of RAM, it should be noted its importance for computer equipment. Its use is associated with interaction with the processor, and therefore in communication, it is applicable only in the case of computer technology, for example in the current measuring means. With regard to static random access memory SRAM, it has been applied in a so - called cache - memory.
Job cache associated with the functions of the microprocessor of the computer. It provides a reduction in the average access time to the computer memory and is one of the upper levels of the memory hierarchy. Cache memory is relatively small, but this is enough to save a copy of frequently used data from the main memory. If most of the requests processed in memory cache, average latency of memory access delays will approach the job cache. Therefore, as a cache used static RAM SRAM, which provides the necessary speed. Because the SRAM can operate at a frequency of a few gigahertz, the cache is based on a memory can operate at a clock frequency of the processor.
In addition to progress in the development of memory devices it should be noted the great progress in the development of display devices performance computers. Creation of a modern computer display proved to be very challenging. The first computers were huge machines, initially occupy entire rooms . Displays in the modern sense did not exist. We replace them with tiny light bulbs that lit up and went out, when the computer handle certain instructions . To display the results obtained by an electronic computer, it was logical to use kinescopes.
Kinescopes were first vector tipe(CRT). In such CRT used a beam of cathode rays, moving from one point to another, leaving the screen glowing lines that gradually fades. Attenuation occurs very quickly and usually no more than 0.1 seconds. To make the image remained on the screen, it comes with a frequency of several tens of hertz redraw. All this led to severe restrictions on the amount of information displayed on the screen. Vector picture tubes, now called cathode ray tubes, are widely used at present in oscilloscopes. Vector kinescopes were the first to be used as monitors for computers.
To transfer images to the television picture tubes used bitmap. The raster CRT beam path of movement on the screen is always constant, regardless of the displayed image. The beam is moved line by line from top to bottom of the screen and by modulating the brightness of the beam forms an image. The first electronic television picture tubes used just raster, but in the computer raster monitors were used much later vector, since a significant amount of memory required for the regeneration of the image. he main reason was the need to convert information to a computer output from a digital form into an analog signal that can be realized only if the storage devices with a significant amount of memory.
The development of cathode ray tubes was fast, it was promoted and the development of television. So i n 1939 he was presented the first electronic television for mass production. His model, RCS TT- 5 was developed in the USA in a research laboratory RCA, headed by Vladimir Zworykin, a Russian emigre, and it was a large wooden box with a screen with a diagonal of 5 inches. The first mass - serial easy and affordable to consumers in Russia has become a TV KVN - 49-1 , developed in 1947 year at the Leningrad Institute of Television. Serial production of television sets this brand started in 1949 year. KVN name comes from the first letters of developers TV: Kenigson VK., Warsaw N.M. and Nicholas IA, and 49 years from the start of serial production.
In 1950 there was another breakthrough in technology. In the United States it has been developed a mask color picture tube with three electron guns. CRT screen was covered by three types of phosphor luminous by electron beams red, green and blue color. Each point of the image formed by three different types of phosphor portions collectively perceived by the eye as a single colored dot. Electron beams emitted by these guns simultaneously ran all scan lines, but the design of the tube was such that each beam incident on its own type of phos-
phor and by modulating the intensity of the beams on the screen could display the colored dots.
The first color television cathode ray tube was released in the US in March 1954 by Westinghouse and was called H840CK15, and after a few weeks, the United States was released one color TV, but now RCA - RCA CT- 100. He had a 15 -inch color picture tube. For the price of the first color TV sets can not count on the massive use, and for a limited number of consumers. However, it soon turned into a color television mass, and in all countries there was a large number of different models of color TV sets. Display technology CRT - TVs improved from year to year, and when it was the era of computers, cathode ray tubes were used to display the results of their work.
But the real boom in the development of CRT monitors began with the advent of the personal computer. The main difficulty in the use of CRT is to translate digital information the computer into an analog signal that can control the electron beam of kinescope. For such a signal in the first designs of the display was supplied by the controller, who had direct access to the computer's memory at the addresses which contained the text to display. This display technology slows down the computer as used for imaging the central processor. Also affected the performance of frequent recourse to the RAM to read the field containing the information to display. So soon to display data on the monitor display adapters have been developed offloads the CPU and system memory as video cards equipped with a built-in memory and do not require constant reference to the main RAM for refresh.The first such video card was developed in 1981year , it was called Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA) and used in the IBM PC. The adapter was monochrome works only in text mode with a resolution 80x25 characters (720x350 points ). This video card was the beginning of progress in this area. Already in 1987year, was developed by IBM graphics adapter VGA (Video Graphics Array), he soon became the accepted standard monitors and video cards .
The main resolution, the adapter supports VGA, 640x480 pixels was, at the same time displays 16 colors chosen from a palette of 262144 shade. The new permit better able to display an image and had an aspect ratio of 4 : 3, which has become the standard for a long time, and only in recent years has been supplanted by a widescreen display, both the monitor and the TV
Unlike previous graphics cards to VGA analog signal used to transmit display information monitor. Using an analog signal can reduce the number of wires in the cable, as needed to pass only the signals of three primary colors and timing signals, and the individual channel is allocated for transmission of official information. Also new is an analog communication interface between the graphics adapter and monitor allows you to further increase the number of simultaneously displayed colors without changing the communication interface with the monitor without changing the monitor.
But to work with the VGA graphics adapter needed new multi-frequency analog monitors. These monitors have been working with different frame rates, allowing them to maintain modes with different resolution and an almost unlimited number of colors, and fully ensure the full potential of graphics cards VGA. Over time, the graphic interface of the operating systems have become part of the practice, and the increased needs of users led to the release of an enhanced version of the video adapter VGA, subsequently received the common name of Super VGA or SVGA. Advances in computer technology helped improve the monitors. Because standard television tube was designed to reproduce the image using 625 lines. Computer monitor with a tube provides a resolution of 800x600 pixels is almost equal. Currently, a large number of available screens with a resolution of 1024x760, 1280x1024, 1600x1200 and higher. It has been increased and the frequency sweep.
Further progress, however, has led to the replacement of CRT monitors, liquid crystal display (LCD) - monitors, which in a short time reached the top of the display quality comparable with the quality of display and color CRT monitors .
But the LCD monitors are more compact and ergonomic.
Currently, LCDs are widely used in television. Thus, television, which played at the initial stage, an important role in the progress of computers, get a decent support. And it's not just the fact that television has become more compact and ight, but also in the fact that the use of LCD monitors with high resolution possible to realize high-definition television .
The rapid development of optoelectronic technology, led progress in the establishment of electronic digital means of recording, conversion and display of information on the basis of which was made possible realization of digital cinema. Began to develop a new area - digital cinema (D-cinema). Now you can create movies in digital form, similar in quality to the optical image, as well as to transmit information in the form of files on the channels of communication for an unlimited distance. It should be noted as a low cost and the ability to copy information to play movies at home. It should be noted that the prospects of D-cinema discussed in our country long before the creation of high definition television. During the subsequent period the development of digital cinema began to be based on the ultra-high-definition television. The solution to this problem was made possible by the development of digital signal processing techniques, which took place in computer technology.
Among the problems that must be solved for the introduction of electronic cinema should be attributed not only to achieve ultra-high - definition, but also on the transition to a different standard. Unlike conventional TV movie used in the frame rate is not 25, and 24 Hz. Further expansion of the interlaced image to be replaced by progressive. However, it should be provided with a new type of signal transmission through the interface for an interlaced signal.
Digital cinema has several advantages over traditional technology. These should include the acceleration of the process of shooting and editing movies, easy installation and editing, long-term safety of raw materials and copies unlimited number of copies, preservation of 100% quality when playing back a copy with the film screenings, the ability to deliver a copy of the web of links and via the Internet. An important advantage of the digital cinema is also the possibility of using digital image processing to achieve the desired effect, because these methods allow you to adjust brightness, contrast, hue, saturation, size. Of great importance also is the possibility of processing the digital audio signal.
By the early 1990 's, the world community has arisen interest in the use of television images with a resolution of more than 1000 lines. Such permission was suitable for a large-screen television, movies, computer graphics, printing, medicine, science. In the development of such systems was taken into account and applied perspectives broadcast television.
On the recommendation of the ITU -s VT.1361 parameters spatial resolution of the equipment must be multiples of the number of pixels in the horizontal and vertical expansion of the format of 1920?1080. So Japan's NHK offered as the top of the hierarchy format of 7680?4320. However, increasing the visual image quality by increasing the number of lines per unit of time resulting in a dramatic increase in bandwidth, compatibility with existing systems, TV broadcasting and receiving equipment a significant complication.
Of interest is another option to increase the visual quality of the image without significant bandwidth expansion by converting the transmitted signals at the receiving end. To implement this option, you must convert the space-time structure of the signal to align them with the characteristics of the visual system of the observer. It should be noted that the ability to implement this option became a reality due to the development of microelectronics and particularly with the development of digital signal processing using the memory elements. Since the development of small - sized memory devices can store TV signals at intervals multiples of the duration of the line half-frames and frames are now allowed to perform digital filtering and other changes directly to the TV receiver
At present, various companies produce essential receivers and receivers, which are connected to the usual TV and which convert digital signals into stan-
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dard analog TV signals. Besides converting consoles allow data written to the desired TV program connected to it via USB hard drive HDD, including the time set in the timer. With this device recorded shows can be played back on a TV receiver. In addition to the impact on the development of television and computer technologies have made a real revolution in mobile communication systems. Mobile communication systems have arisen independently of the computers have been significantly developed through the introduction of mobile phones in computer technology. Currently very popular smartphones. This term was introduced by Ericsson in 2000 to refer to their new phone Ericsson R380s. At the same time a large number of devices manufactured under the name "Communicator". This device is a personal digital assistant (PDA), complete functionality of a mobile phone.
Comparing the term "smartphone" and "communicator" it may be noted that the device is derived from the PDA due to its replenishment capabilities of the mobile phone and smart phone from a mobile phone by adding to it the functions of a personal computer . Currently, it is difficult to draw the line between a smartphone and a communicator - they are too similar. However, there are differences in the operating system. The communicators are used operating systems Apple iOS, Windows Phone, Open webOS or Android.
In smartphones, a system of Windows Mobile, with input solely for the most popular now a Latin keyboard layout QWERTY, used for English. On the basis of its most developed layouts for languages that use the Latin alphabet. The name comes from the 6 adjacent characters on the left side of the top row of the keyboard. The QWERTY layout was invented by K. Scholes and first applied in a mechanical typewriter Remington 1. Opening in 1888, touch typing F Makgurrinom for Remington typewriter 2 helped in popularizing this layout. Dispensation in 1888 year Event Quick Print, which was widely covered in the press and ended with a convincing victory Makgurrina helped QWERTY layout to more and more popularity.
Despite the emergence of new variants of the QWERTY keyboard layout remains popular and is used in most smartphones. The presence in the smart-phone a full keyboard in which each letter has its own key, makes it a small computer. It makes it comfortable to type more text to write an SMS or e-mails. Smartphones manufacturers are moving due to such factors as advanced multimedia features (better quality camera, enhanced video playback, enhanced musical features, Wi-Fi, GPS).
In the first half of 2007 year, Microsoft released Windows Mobile 6. From the name of the operating system, have been removed the words "Smartphone" and "Pocket PC" (version without the support of the touch screen called the Standard, with the support - Classic and Professional). This finally brought together communicators and smartphones in a single device class. In mid-2007 year,
Apple released a candy machine iPhone. The device did not differ functionality, but it was an important innovation - a way to control the device with two fingers (Multi-Touch). Apply a capacitive screen and a new user interface create a sense of control image on the screen with your fingers. An large advertising campaign made this device a hit. Initially, iPhone OS was closed ADEs iPhone SDK for third parly developers appeared only in early 2008 year. Apple's smartphone has attracted considerable attention, many manufacturers have released phones and communicators with an interface - oriented control of the fingers.
In 2008 year, Apple introduced an updated version of its smartphone iPhone 3G. The device will support networks of 3rd generation and GPS, corrected some of the shortcomings of the previous model. Official delivery device made in more than 70 countries (including Russia). Due to successful sales of the Apple iPhone began the conquest of the smartphone market (about 5 % of global sales).
There are six differences smartphone from a regular phone.
1. Powerful operating system. The smartphone is based on the following operating systems that allow you to run and to download any application. The most famous is the smartphone OS - iOS (Apple), Windows Phone (Microsoft), Android OS (Google).
2. High-speed Internet access.
3. Applications. There is software, such as the address book.
4. E-mail address.
5.Virtual Keyboard. The smartphone has a function as a touch keyboard or a QWERTY - keyboard, where the keys are exactly the same as on the computer, which creates a great convenience to users.
6. Availability of the navigator.
Thus, we can conclude that computer equipment, borrowed at certain stages of development of a number of important theoretical and constructive solutions of communications technology, in addition to a significant contribution to the development of civilization, has revolutionized the very communications technology, or as it is now customary to say in today's infocommunications.
References
1. Adzhemov AS., Koblents A.I., Gordienko V.N. Multichannel telecommunications and channel telegraph equipment. - M.: Radio and communication. 1989, 415 p.
2. Krivosheev M.I. International standardization of digital television broadcasting. -M.: NIIR, 2006. - 928 p.
3. Bezrukov V.N., Korolev AV, Lyapunov V.N., Novakovskaya O.S. Selection of parameters television systems and high-definition visual quality // Technique of Film and Television. 1985, №10. S.22-28.
ИСТОРИЯ РАЗВИТИЯ ВЫЧИСЛИТЕЛЬНОЙ ТЕХНИКИ И СВЯЗИ
Хромой Борис Петрович, МТУСИ, Москва, Росссия
Анотация. Впервые о влиянии техники связи на развитие вычислительных машин в своих научных публикациях отметил Н.Винер, который считается основателем современной кибернетики. Он рассматривал влияние связи, прежде всего на развитие техники управления. Следует обратить внимание так же на то, что Н. Винер связывал с техникой связи не только развитие теории управления, но и прикладной математики и вычислительных машин. Сделано заключение, что компьютерная техника, позаимствовавшая на определенных этапах развития ряд важных теоретических и конструктивных решений из техники связи, помимо важного вклада в развитие цивилизации, произвела революцию в самой технике связи, или как в настоящее время принято говорить в современных инфокоммуникациях.
Литература
1. Аджемов А.С., Кобленц А.И., Гордиенко В.Н. Многоканальная электросвязь и каналообразующая телеграфная аппаратура. - М.: Радио и связь. 1989, 415 с.
2. Кривошеев М.И. Международная стандартизация цифрового телевизионного вещания. - М.: НИИР, 2006. - 928 с.
3. Безруков В.Н., Королев А.В., Ляпунов В.Н., Новаковская О.С. Выбор параметров систем телевидения высокой визуальной четкости и качества // Техника кино и телевидения. 1985, №10. С.22-28.
