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THE HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION AND CYBERNETICS DEVELOPMENT
Adzhemov A.S.,
MTUCI, Моscow, Russia, [email protected]
Khromoy B.P.,
MTUCI, Моscow, Russia,
Keywords: cybernetics, signal transmission, the theory of optimal control, theory pattern recognition, theory of algorithms.
Cybernetics is the interdisciplinary science. It emerged at the crossroads of mathematics, logic, semiotics, physiology, biology, sociology. It peculiar to analysis and identification of common principles and approaches in the process scientific knowledge.
The most important theories combine Cybernetics include: the theory of signal transmission, the theory of optimal control, theory pattern recognition, theory of algorithms. With the exeption of analysis tools in Cybernetics use powerful tools for the synthesis solutions, provided by the apparatus of mathematical analysis, linear algebra, geometry of convex sets, probability theory and mathematical statistics, as well as more applied areas of mathematics, such as mathematical programming, Informatics, and other derivatives discipline. To assess the generality of Cybernetics and communications take up historical history fact. Earlier it was noted that in 1948 year, Mr. Wiener published his famous book "Cybernetics or control and communication in the animal and the machine". Since then, the term Cybernetics as a new branch of science invariably associated with the name of N. Wiener, although weighty progress belong in this area other scientists. But of course Mr. Wiener is a pioneer, bound together tasks and the control algorithms in technical system in living organisms and in the state. New science has revolutionized. It is focused not on physical objects, and the relations between them. Properties of the whole cannot be obtained by examining its parts. Scientists came to the conclusion that we are dealing with a new class of objects, they called Systems.
Any communication system carries control functions. This is true even of the first systems, engaged in the transmission of Telegraph signals. Currently widely used communication device and the system carries out automatic control. Management, with the participation of a person is usually is carried out in modern communication systems in level management. Questions of optimal control systems and communication networks in this sense, are currently debating. Systems and devices for automatic control, carried out with by means technical means, on the contrary, are well-designed from an engineering point of view, tested in practice for many years of operation. They are of the greatest interest in evaluating the impact of communication on Cybernetics.
The mobile communication system can also be attributed to cybernetic systems, since all operations are carried out in these systems, in automatic mode. The most obvious from this point of view wireless network built in bluetooth technology.
Для цитирования:
Аджемов А.С., Хромой Б.П. История развития связи и кибернетики // T-Comm: Телекоммуникации и транспорт. - 2015. - Том. 9. - №11. - С. 68-72.
For citation:
Adzhemov A.S., Khromoy B.P. The history of communication and cybernetics development. T-Comm. 2015. Vol. 9. No.11, рр. 68-72.
1 . Erom the history of Cybernetics
It is well known studyes Norbert Wiener, considered the father of the founder Cybernetics as a separate independent science. However, the term "Cybernetics" is ancient origins. It comes from the Greece word "KuPepvnTnÇ", which means the "art of management".
Plato used the term Cybernetics as applied to the management State. In those times, there was no complex manufacturing processes requiring the development of management skills. So naturally the idea of control primarily belonged to the state. The only alternative was the art of managing ship. Here in ancient as in ancient Greece used the term "Cybernetics".
Ñhanged not one epoch before Cybernetics took the form separate science. However, the term was widely used earlier. Words Cybernetics used almost in the modern sense in 1830, the French physicist and systematized Sciences Àfaôâ Ampere (Andre-Marie Ampere, 1775-1836), for designation the science of control in his classification system of human knowledge. The problem relate in the present time in Cybernetics was solved in the works of many scientist who, however, did not use this term.
The same can be noted scientific publications A.A. Bogdanov (1873-1928), developed organizational science "tectology", Russian physiologist P.K.Anokhin, published in 1935 year, a book in which was discussed the concept of feedback, works engineer Harold Black in1927 year the use of negative feedback to control the amplifiers.
However, the popularity of the term Cybernetics in modern level began with books Norbert Wiener "Cybernetics or control and communication in the animal and the machine" released in Paris in 1948 year. The book is based on the progress of applied mathematics in the field of research Brownian motion and the theory of the telecommunications. Wiener also popularized social values Cybernetics drawing analogies between automatic systems (such as adjustable steam engine) and human institutions in his bestseller "Cybernetics and society"
Now, the object of Cybernetics are all managed systems. The system is not manageable in principle are not objects of study of Cybernetics. Cybernetics introduces concepts such as cybernetic approach cybernetic system. Cybernetic systems are considered in the abstract, regardless of their material nature. Examples of cybernetic systems automatic controllers in engineering, PC, human brain, biological populations, human society. Each such system is a set of interrelated objects (system elements) able to perceive, remember and process owerwork information and to exchange it. Cybernetics develops General principles for the creation of control systems and systems for the automation of brain work. Basic tools for solutions problems of Cybernetics - electronic computer. Therefore, the emergence of Cybernetics as independent science connected with creation in 40 years of the xx century these machines and the development of Cybernetics in the theoretical and practical aspects - with the progress of electronic computing equipment.
Cybernetics is the interdisciplinary science. It emerged
at the crossroads of mathematics, logic, semiotics, physiology, biology, sociology. It peculiar to analysis and identification of common principles and approaches in the process scientific knowledge.
The most important theories combine Cybernetics include: the theory of signal transmission, the theory of optimal control, theory pattern recognition, theory of algorithms. With the exeption of analysis tools in Cybernetics use powerful tools for the synthesis solutions, provided by the apparatus of mathematical analysis, linear algebra, geometry of convex sets, probability theory and mathematical statistics, as well as more applied areas of mathematics, such as mathematical programming, Informatics, and other derivatives discipline.
To the category of Russian specialists outstanding a great contribution to the development of Cybernetics should include Kolmogorov A.N. (1903-1987), Bogdanov A.A. (1873-1928), Lyapunov A.A. (1911-1973), Glushkov V.M. (1923-1982), Vyshnegradsky I.A. (1831-1895), Cousin L.T.(1928-1997), Povarov G.N. (1928-2004), Tikhonov A.N. (1906-1993).
N. Wiener testified "....Khintchine and Kolmogorov, two of the most visible; Russian specialist in probability theory for a long time worked the same area that I. More than twenty years, we came on each other's heel: they proved theorem I was prepared to prove, that I was able to finish the race a little bit before their". And yet another recognition of the Wiener which he did once journalists: "For the past thirty years when I read the papers academician Kolmogorov, I feel that my thoughts. It is every time that I wanted to say".
And here's what he wrote Kolmogorov A.N. "I am one of those extremely desperate Kibernetiks, who does not see any fundamental restrictions in cybernetic approach to the problem of life and I believe that it is possible to analyze the life in its entirety including, human conscience, methods of Cybernetics. Progress in the understanding of the mechanism higher nervous activity, including the highest manifestations of human creativity, nothing reduce of value and beauty creative achievements of man".
2. The mutual influence of Communication
and Cybernetics
To assess the generality of Cybernetics and communications take up historical history fact. Earlier it was noted that in 1948 year, Mr. Wiener published his famous book "Cybernetics or control and communication in the animal and the machine". Since then, the term Cybernetics as a new branch of science invariably associated with the name of N. Wiener, although weighty progress belong in this area other scientists. But of course Mr. Wiener is a pioneer, bound together tasks and the control algorithms in technical system in living organisms and in the state. New science has revolutionized. It is focused not on physical objects, and the relations between them. Properties of the whole cannot be obtained by examining its parts. Scientists came to the conclusion that we are dealing with a new class of objects, they called Systems.
With in the scope of this article, it should be noted the term "communication" in title of the book "Cybernetics or Control and communication in the animal and the machine". N. Wiener solving mathematical problems constantly referred to communication technology, accurately allocating accepted it in their mathematics working. As an example, here is a quote from the book by N. Wiener: "What as regards to communication technology, that it became evident to me that management techniques and communication technology inseparable from each other and that they concentrate not around concepts electrical and around the more fundamental concepts of message. The message is a discrete or continuous sequence of measurable events distributed in time, that is what statisticians call time series".
Thus, N. Wiener was associated advances in the General theory of communication with the management theory, development of which is largely determined borrowing some of the achievements received in communications technology. Obviously the impact of communication technology needs on the development of applied mathematics: probability theory, mathematical statistics, information theory, etc.
You should pay attention also to the fact, that N. Wiener was associated with the communication engineering, not only the development of management theory, but of applied mathematics and computing machines.
Since 1940 year, Mr. Wiener has paid attention to the development of computing machines for solving differential equations in partial derivatives. The main was the problem of representation of functions of several variables. N. Wiener writes: "I was also convinced that reality TV will bring the technique more useful the creation of such new processes, than in itself, as a special branch".
Next N. Wiener sets out requirements for the design of computing machines:
1. Central adder and multiplier devices must be digital.
2. These devices are essentially switches, should consist of electronic tubes.
3. Should be used more economical binary, not base-ten system.
4. The sequence of actions should be planned in the machine. All logic should be done by the machine itself.
5. The machine must contain a device for storing data. This product should quickly write, surely store up to erase, quickly to read.
It is obvious that the main part of the listed positions, formulated with regard to computing machines, the result of the experience and known at the time of promising solutions in communications technology. This electron tube designed to solve problems of communication, this and economical binary system numeration, this and storage device for storing data.
3. The development of control
in communications systems
Any communication system carries control functions. This is true even of the first systems, engaged in the trans-
mission of Telegraph signals. Currently widely used communication device and the system carries out automatic control. Management, with the participation of a person is usually is carried out in modern communication systems in level management. Questions of optimal control systems and communication networks in this sense, are currently debating. Systems and devices for automatic control, carried out with by means technical means, on the contrary, are well-designed from an engineering point of view, tested in practice for many years of operation. They are of the greatest interest in evaluating the impact of communication on Cybernetics.
If we consider the issue in chronological order, you should start with automatic telephone station (PBX). PBX -the device automatically transmitting a call signal from one phone to another. The system of automatic telephone stations provides for the establishment, maintaining and breaking connections between devices.
The first patent for PBX (US Patent No. 447918 10/6/1891) was issued in 1889 year American inventor Almon Brown Strowger. In one version of the invention decade - stepper finder A.Strowger pushed unfair competition. A.Strowger was the owner funeral bureau in the Kansas city and suffered losses upon receipt order from telephone, since a telephone operator at the station worked wife is a direct competitor of the owner of the other funeral company. The operator directed all calls to subscribers, send, funeral bureau, her husband. A.Strowger swore forever to save society from telephone operators and invented the automatic telephone switch decade - stepper type capacity up to 99 subscribers.
In Soviet Union PBX (ATS) decade - stepper type began to be produced after 1945 year the factory "Kayasnaya -Zarya". In them switching element was decade - stepper type is quite complex electromechanical device. The shortcomings of such PBX bore operational nature, stimulate the transition to a coordinate PBX.
As switching devices there in use multiple coordinate connectors, representing electromagnetic devices parallel actions. The main difference from decadal - stepper PBX is the lack of individual control devices in each switching device.
Next came quasi-electronic PBX. In them switching is performed by reed, and management of electronic microprocessor. The term quasi-electronic PBX is often referred the coordinate PBX with electronic control. Quasi-electronic PBX were converted into electronic analog in which the switching of the analog signal realize semiconductor and microprocessor control. They were used only as a small PBX, very small capacity and were replaced by electronic digital.
In the electronic digital PBX switching and control fully digital. The analog signal is digitized in the subscriber set and transferred inside PBX and between PBX in digital form, ensure low fading and minimum electromagnetic noise regardless of the length of the path between PBX. Digital PBX is often called switches digital streams E1, although it
is not entirely true.
The development of the PBX during the considered period was directed on its improvement as a system with automatic control. Improving PBX has led to the development of the theory of teletraffic. Teletraffic this concept which can be defined as the movement of information in information systems. Theory teletraffic exploring patterns and quantitative description information flows.
The basic mathematical model of the processes, describing traffic in telecommunication networks, is a random data stream. The stream as a random process characterized by its statistical properties. Theory teletraffic based on such mathematical topics probability theory and mathematical statistics. The needs of society in the development of communications encouraged mathematicians to develop these disciplines. Thus the development of PBX influenced on the development of the theoretical foundations of Cybernetics.
Further development of the telephone Communication to the need to transmit telephone signals over large distances. For this purpose, we used wire lines and cables. Naturally the question arose about the economic aspects use these lines. Improving the efficiency of wire managed to solve it through the use of frequency division multiplexing and use of relay which are applied in the amplification of signals, weakened by attenuation in the lines. Since the attenuation in the lines changed in time due to numerous factors, the amplifiers were built using the system automatic gain control (AGC). The system automatically compensated oscillation signal in the direction of decreasing its amplitude and upwards, generating at the output of the amplifier is stable at the level of the signal.
In parallel AGC was implemented and in other communications equipment. AGC was used to exclude overload output stages receivers when large input signals. AGC is used in home appliances and receivers geostationary communications satellites, in television receivers. Switch the television channels with the remote control, the consumer has the option of not applying any additional steps to get the image and the sound of the other programs at constant volume and the contrast of the image while the radio transmitters used to broadcast some channels have different power.
In the future, a kind AGC allows to work with pulse signals. Were developed the theoretical basis, the concept of dynamic range AGC, which the output signal is within range, input parameter: response time AGC reflecting the reaction speed AGC on the jump of the input signal. An important property of the system AGC is the output, showing the level of the input signal devices. For radio communication devices have been developed three types of AGC: simple, delayed and intensive delayed.
Another control mechanism has widely used in telecommunication engineering "feedback". Feedback affects the operation of automatic systems. In dependence on the effect it has on the input of this same system or on a separate its part, the changing nature of the system and the mathematical description of motion. Such closed systems
management are characterized by the fact that they are input are both external and control impact, that is coming from a managed object.
The circuit (channel) of the feedback may contain one or more parts, performing converts the output signal the main chain of impacts for a given algorithm. Feedback is a fundamental concept of Cybernetics, especially control theory and information theory. Feedback allows you to monitor and take into account the actual condition managed system and to make appropriate adjustments in its control algorithm. In the techique systems the control information about the functioning adjustable unit goes through the chain of feedback to the operator or automatic control device.
Negative feedback is widely used in closed automatic systems to improve stability, improve transient process, decrease sensitivity and like. Positive feedback amplifies the output effect link (or system), increases the sensitivity and generally to decrease stability, deterioration of transients and dynamic properties.
The development of the theory feedback in the telecommunications devices contributed to Cybernetics because this theory can be applied in other areas. The existence of regulatory systems in biology based on feedback traced at all levels living creature from molecular to population. The most significant contribution of this mechanism in the automatic maintenance of a constant internal environment of the organism, the genetic apparatus, of the endocrine and nervous systems. Negative feedback (the General principle for all living systems) was formulated by the Russian physiologist N. A. Belov. The theory feedback applicable to the solution of problems of management.
The next question, to consider the evaluation of the impact of theoretical and practical achievements communication industry on the development of Cybernetics is to synchronize. First of all task synchronization occurred when building a cathode ray oscilloscopes, widely used in communications equipment. A still image was obtained by synchronization of the sweep generator the analyzed signal. Next, the synchronization needed for providing television receiver.
The generators horizontal and vertical blanking multimillion number, television receivers (TVs) should work synchronously and in-phase with the appropriate sweep generators transmitting camera on the sending television centre. Therefore in the television was provided for automatically operating the system control generators sweep TVs. Unlike radio, TVs not only should take to strengthen and reproduce signals but also be controlled by synchronization signals. Further, the control system TVs added color synchronization. Scientific solutions for synchronization of generators frame scan and line scan were different. Synchronization of the generator frame scanning was carried out by pulse method and line scan method of a phase-locked loop (PLL). The needs TV and other radio systems gave impetus to the development of the mathematical theory of synchronization which turned out to be in demand when building a modern digital networks. Synchronization
turned out to be the most important component managing digital networks and of course made a great contribution to the development of Cybernetics.
The mobile communication system can also be attributed to cybernetic systems, since all operations are carried out in these systems, in automatic mode. The most obvious from this point of view wireless network built in bluetooth technology.
Standards IEEE 802.16d and IEEE 802.16e provide adaptive antenna systems(Smart- antennas). The principle of functioning Smart- antennas based on the assumption of functioning what is the source of the useful signal and noise are rarely combined in the direction. This allows providing a high gain antenna in the right direction and forming at least its pattern the source of noise multiple increases in operational relationship at the receiver input. Thus this type
of antenna should be attributed to the devices with automatic control.
These data indicate a close relationship and mutual influence of Cybernetics and communications.
References
1. Wiener N. Cybernetics. - M.: Soviet radio, 1968.
2. Kuzin L.T. Bases Cybernetics (in 2 vols). - M.: Energy, 1973.
3. Wiener N. Cybernetics or control and communication in the animal and the machine. - M.: Science, 1983.
4. Shannon C. Works in information theory and Cybernetics. M.: Publishing house of foreign literature, 1963.
5. Povorov G.N. Amper and Cybernetics. - M.: Soviet radio, 1977.
6. Bogdanov A.A. Tectology: Universal organizational science. (In 2 books). - M.: Economic, 1989.
ИСТОРИЯ РАЗВИТИЯ СВЯЗИ И КИБЕРНЕТИКИ
Аджемов Артём Сергеевич, Хромой Борис Петрович, МТУСИ, Москва, Россия, [email protected]
Аннотация
В настоящее время объектом кибернетики являются все управляемые системы. Системы, не поддающиеся управлению, в принципе, не являются объектами изучения кибернетики. Кибернетика вводит такие понятия, как кибернетический подход, кибернетическая система. Кибернетические системы рассматриваются абстрактно, вне зависимости от их материальной природы. Примеры кибернетических систем - автоматические регуляторы в технике, ЭВМ, человеческий мозг, биологические популяции, человеческое общество. Каждая такая система представляет собой множество взаимосвязанных объектов (элементов системы), способных воспринимать, запоминать и перерабатывать информацию, а также обмениваться ею. Кибернетика разрабатывает общие принципы создания систем управления и систем для автоматизации умственного труда. Основные технические средства для решения задач кибернетики - ЭВМ. Поэтому возникновение кибернетики как самостоятельной науки связано с созданием в 40-х гг. XX в. этих машин, а развитие кибернетики в теоретических и практических аспектах - с прогрессом электронной вычислительной техники.
Любая система связи несет в себе функции управления. Это касается даже первых систем, осуществлявших передачу телеграфных сигналов. В настоящее время в связи широко применяются устройства и системы, осуществляющие автоматическое управление. Управление с участием человека обычно осуществляется в современных системах связи на уровне менеджмента. Вопросы оптимального управления системами и сетями связи в этом смысле являются в настоящее время дискуссионными. Системы и устройства автоматического управления, осуществляемые с помощью технических средств, наоборот являются хорошо проработанными с инженерной точки зрения, испытаны на практике в течение многих лет эксплуатации. Они и представляют наибольший интерес при оценке влияния связи на кибернетику.
Ключевые слова: кибернетика, управляемые системы, связь. Литература
1. Винер Н. Кибернетика. - М.: Советское радио, 1968.
2. Кузин Л.Т. Основы кибернетики (в 2-х томах). - М.: Энергия, 1973.
3. Винер Н. Кибернетика, или управление и связь в животном и машине, 1948.
4. Шеннон К. Работы по теории информации и кибернетике. - М.: Изд. иностр. лит., 1963. - 830 с.
5. Поваров Г.Н. Ампер и кибернетика. - М.: Советское радио, 1977.
6. Богданов А.А. Тектология: Всеобщая организационная наука. В 2-х книгах. Москва, "Экономика", 1989.
