ИССЛЕДОВАНИЕ СОВМЕСТНОГО РАЗВИТИЯ БЕГЛОСТИ ЧТЕНИЯ И ПОНИМАНИЯ ПРОЧИТАННОГО С ПОМОЩЬЮ ОСОЗНАННОГО ОБУЧЕНИЯ СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯМ

Хонамри Фатима; Павликова Мартина; Фалахати Фатима; Петриковикова Люция

Science for Education Today

2020, том 10, № 3

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ISSN 2658-6762

DOI: 10.15293/2658-6762.2003.01

УДК 378+159+314

Исследование совместного развития беглости чтения и понимания прочитанного с помощью осознанного обучения словосочетаниям

Ф. Хонамри (Мазандаран, Иран), M. Павликова (Нитра, Словакия), Ф. Фалахати (Мазандаран, Иран), Л. Петриковикова (Нитра, Словакия)

Проблема и цель. Предрасположенность к осознанности и ее влияние на успеваемость студентов широко исследовалась в последние два десятилетия. Внимательность определяется как целенаправленное внимание к переживаниям настоящего момента, лишенное суждений, приводящее к ощущению стабильности и нереактивного осознания (Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt, & Walach, 2004). Кроме того, доказано, что словосочетание играет важную роль в развитии беглости чтения и понимания у учащихся. Таким образом, в настоящем исследовании была предпринята попытка выяснить, оказывает ли осознанное обучение словосочетаниям положительное влияние на беглость чтения учащихся и их способность к пониманию прочитанного.

Методология. С этой целью в данном исследовании приняли участие 30 студентов английского языка и литературы, обучающихся на кафедре английского языка в Университете Мазан-дарана. Тест на понимание прочитанного, взятый из TOEFL, был использован для измерения способности учащихся к чтению, чтобы гомогенизировать их с точки зрения их начального поведения. Кроме того, тест Word Associate test advanced by Read (1993, 1998) был применен для изучения глубины словарного запаса и коллокационных знаний участников. Кроме того, шкала осознанного внимания (MAAS), разработанная Brown & Ryan (2003), была использована для выявления внимательных и менее внимательных студентов. Затем все участники были разделены на две группы внимательных и менее внимательных участников для более глубокого анализа.

Результаты. Результаты U-теста Уилкоксона и Маана-Уайтни показали, что как явные, так и неявные группы прогрессировали в интервале между претестом и посттестом, и не было существенных различий между эффектами явного и неявного обучения словосочетаниям.

*Исследование выполнено при поддержке Словацкого агентства по исследованиям и разработкам в соответствии с контрактом № 1. АПВВ-17-0158

Хонамри Фатима - кандидат технических наук, профессор, Университет Мазандарана, провинция Мазандаран, Бабольсер, Иран. E-mail: fkhonamri@umz.ac.ir

Павликова Мартина - доктор наук, PhD, профессор, проректор, Университет Константина философа в Нитре, Нитра, Словакия. E-mail: mpavlikova@ukf.sk

Фалахати Фатима - MA Holder, Университет Мазандарана, провинция Мазандаран, Бабольсер, Иран.

E-mail: fatemehfalahati30@yahoo.com

2020, том 10, № 3

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Кроме того, результаты осознанного обучения словосочетаниям не были эффективными. Результаты показали, что ни один из типов инструкций не оказывал влияния на беглость чтения учащихся. Дальнейший анализ влияния внимательности на беглость чтения учащихся показал, что существует незначительная разница между менее внимательными и внимательными учащимися.

Заключение. Авторы пришли к выводу, что педагоги должны быть внимательны к тому, какой метод может быть более влиятельным в отношении улучшения беглости чтения учащихся.

Ключевые слова: улучшение беглости чтения; развитие понимания прочитанного; осознанное обучение словосочетаниям; способность к пониманию прочитанного.

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Fatemeh Khonamri, Professor, PhD,

University of Mazandaran, Mazandaran Province, Babolsar, Iran ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6833-5347 E-mail: fkhonamri@umz.ac.ir Martina Pavlikova PhD, vicerector,

Contantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Nitra, Slovak Republic Corresponding author

ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6738-3320 E-mail: mpavlikova@ukf.sk Fatemeh Falahati, MA Holder,

University of Mazandaran, Mazandaran Province, Babolsar, Iran ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8663-5274 E-mail: fatemehfalahati30@yahoo.com Lucia Petrikovicova PhD,

Contantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Nitra, Slovak Republic ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3200-794X E-mail: lpetrikovicova@ukf.sk

Investigating the co-development of reading fluency and reading comprehension through mindful teaching of collocations in EFL classroom

Introduction. The predisposition to mindfulness and its effect on academic performance in students has been widely investigated in the past two decades. Mindfulness is defined as purposely paying attention to present moment experiences, devoid ofjudgment, resulting in a sense of stability and nonreactive awareness (Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt, & Walach, 2004). Moreover, the role of collocation in fostering learners' reading fluency and comprehension is proved to be effective. The current study, thus attempted to investigate whether mindful teaching of collocations has a positive effect on learners' reading fluency and reading comprehension abilities.

Materials and Methods. To this end, 30 students of English language and literature studying at the department of English at the University of Mazandaran participated in this research. A reading comprehension test taken from TOEFL was utilized to measure learners' reading ability to homogenize them in terms of their entry behavior. Furthermore, Word Associate Test advanced by Read (1993, 1998) was applied to explore the participants' depth of vocabulary and collocational knowledge. Besides, the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) developed by Brown & Ryan (2003) was used to identify mindful and less mindful students. All of the participants were then divided into two groups of mindful and less mindful participants for more in-depth analysis.

Results. The result of the Wilcoxon and Maan- whiteny U test revealed that both explicit and implicit groups progressed in the interval between pretest andposttest, and there was not a significant difference between the effects of explicit and implicit teaching of collocations. Moreover, the results of

Abstract

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mindful teaching of collocations were not effective. The results showed neither of the instruction types was influential in terms of the learners reading fluency. Further analysis of the effect of mindfulness on the EFL learners' reading fluency showed that there was an inconsiderable difference between the less mindful and mindful learners.

Conclusions. This implies that the instructors need to be sensitive to what method could be more influential regarding the improvement of the learners' fluency. Keywords

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The improvement of the learners' Reading fluency; Development of Reading Comprehension; Mindful Teaching of Collocations; Reading comprehension abilities.

Acknowledgem ents

This article was published with the support of the Slovak Research and Development Agency under the contract No. APVV-17-0158.

Introduction

During the 1990s, research on collocations was prevalent among English language teaching researchers. Since then, ELT researchers were concerned with the importance of lexical collocations for second/foreign language learning (Bahns, 1993 [2]; Lewis, 1997 [21]; Lewis, 2000 [22]). Teaching and learning lexicon and word combinations was considered as an appropriate way of learning a second or foreign language. Lewis (1993 [20]) proposed the lexical approach and, Natinger and DeCarrico (1992 [27]) highlighted the significance of lexical phrases in language teaching. In fact, the classification of parts of speech was based on a number of criteria such as semantic (the generalized lexical meaning), morphological (the combination of grammatical categories with the corresponding paradigms), and syntactic (functions of words in a sentence) (Muryasov, 2019 [26]). Theoretically, studies on collocations can be viewed from three phases. Lexical, syntactic, and semantic. At the lexical level, linguists studied collocations and viewed them as a linear and semantic cooccurrence of lexical items (Sinclair, 1991 [43]). Nation (2001 [28]) talked about collocations in terms of their syntactic restriction, and some other researchers like Howarth, 1998 [10]; Lewis, 1997 [21]; and Nation, 2001 [28], discussed the

collocations semantically. Many empirical studies were conducted for measuring the collocational knowledge of foreign language learners (Aghbar, 1990 [1]; Hsu, 2005 [11]; Zhang, 1993 [46]). Most of the studies have examined the use of collocations on productive skills such as writing and speaking and few research have focused on the effect of collocational knowledge on receptive skills like listening and reading. Since collocations are not single word items, they are combination of words that co-occur together, so it may help readers or listeners process the language in terms of chunks, not just single words. In effect, "the teaching of foreign languages is facing new challenges in the modern conditions of emerging the global information space" (Novikova et. al., 2018, p. 206 [32]) and it is necessary to seek ways that can help to promote learners' language ability in general and reading ability in particular.

Moreover, the relationship between fluency and comprehension is emphasized by supplementary reading practice. As students read more in further practice, their fluency is improved and it assuredly affects their ability to comprehend the text. Therefore, when comprehension is intensified, a learner's reading fluency is also improved (Fuchs et. al., 2001 [5]).

There is an assumption that fluent word recognition may help for proficient

comprehension. While some current researches emphasize the role of collocation rather than single-word items, most of linguists are concerned with the teaching of collocations to EFL/ESL learners. The essential role of learning collocation and its influence in developing language fluency is supported by theories in cognitive psychology. Collocations are used as automatized resources that lead to faster processing and fluency in production. Native speakers can show their thought and feeling fluently and quickly, because they have a huge storage of chunks which are available for use. Thus, it is believed that learning collocation or language chunks plays an important role in developing language fluency.

Another interesting issue that is the subject of interest for some researchers is the role of mindfulness regarding reading fluency and reading comprehension. To achieve higher level of fluency and to advance reading comprehension, mindful learning is advised in research. (Mahrik, Kralik, Tavilla, 2018 [25]). Mindfulness is defined as ''paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, nonjudgmentally" (Kabat-Zinn, 1990 [13]). Hyland (2003 [14]) contend that as a dimension of the learning process, the practice of mindfulness can connect different forms of learning with the needs, interests and values of learners, which in turn fosters engagement and motivation. Although theoretically speaking, the relationship between mindfulness and learning has been emphasized (Salomon & Globerson, 1987 [42]; Langer, 1997 [18]), the aspects related to practicality of this relationship have been under-researched. This relationship was explored by Yeganeh & Kolb (2009) with regard to experiential learning that found connections between learning from experience and mindfulness. They also reported that individuals who scored higher on Langer's mindfulness scale

highlighted the direct concrete experience in their learning style. Thus, the results indicated that the practice of mindfulness could help individuals learn from experience. Hillgaar (2011) investigated the relationship between mindfulness and self-regulated learning. The results revealed that mindfulness positively correlated with self-regulated learning, and negatively correlated with test anxiety. Nunan (1999), too, argued that knowledge of strategies is crucial especially because the more aware one becomes of what they are doing, the more involved they would be and hence their learning would be more effective. However, few studies have integrated mindfulness as strategies into their foreign/second language teaching program as a main instructional tool especially in reading instruction.

Cain et al. (2004 [3]) and Kintsch (1998 [15]) pointed out that reading comprehension is a complex and demand a lot of cognitive effort because multiple tasks have to be accomplished at the same time. The learners must understand the individual word to fully comprehend the text and link it to their background knowledge or other texts (Stranovska, Gadusova, Ficzere, 2019 [35]). A prerequisite for the target goal of reading comprehension is reading fluency rather than recognizing single word items (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hosp, & Jenkins, 2001 [5]; Stranovska, Hvozdikova, Munkova, Gadusova, 2016 [34]). Thus, mindful mediation seems to be effective in both reading fluency and reading comprehension ability.

Even though there is extensive evidence in the literature for the effectiveness of instruction of collocation on learning second or foreign languages, the majority of students' attempt is to memorize word instead of learning the formulaic chunks or collocation. Moreover, considering the fact that collocation instruction is closely associated with more fluent reading and better comprehension, thus finding the right

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instructional activities that achieves this goal is direly needed. The role of teacher in teaching collocation is thus to foster students' awareness about collocations and use appropriate methods for teaching them. According to previous studies, mindfulness can be one of the practical techniques for developing students' collocational knowledge in order to help them increase their reading fluency and reading comprehension ability. Therefore, the present study attempted to explore this possibility by employing some selected mindfulness activities to be used along with two distinguished methods of instructing collocations (i.e. implicit vs. explicit) to measure their effectiveness on students' collocational knowledge as well as their reading ability.

Methods

Research methodology and research sample In order to shed light on the dependent and independent variables of the current study, three research questions were raised as follows:

1) Does teaching collocations affect EFL learners ' reading comprehension ability?

2) Is there a significant difference between the effects of teaching collocations explicitly or implicitly on learners' reading comprehension ability?

3) Does mindful teaching of collocation play a role in students' reading fluency?

The participants of the carried out research survey were 30 undergraduate students (8 males and 22 females), aged between 19 to 22 years majoring in English language and literature at the department of English of the University of Mazandaran. In this research, participants were taking the reading comprehension (n) course. At the beginning of the course, all of the candidates took a reading comprehension test to homogenize the participants of the study with regard to their reading proficiency. Then the students were divided into two experimental

groups: the first group were taught the collocations explicitly, and the second one learned collocations implicitly. The class was held twice a week for 90 minutes, and the students were involved in explicit and implicit teaching of collocations.

The study employed a quasi-experimental design, which used a pre-test-treatment-post-test procedure to collect data. The present study had two experimental groups with no control group. Participants of this study were selected from one class to reduce the teacher effect. Candidates were selected and categorized based on their proficiency level which was detected through giving a TOEFL test. Students were then divided into two groups of explicit and implicit. In every group there were 15 students who received either instruction explicitly in the explicit group or were guided in the implicit group to find collocations, record them in their notebooks, and write sentences for them.

To measure their collocational knowledge before and after the treatment, Word Association Test (WAT) was used as a pre-test and post-test. WAT test was valid because it contained the most frequently used words that students might encounter in their language learning experience. WAT test was based on 3 relationships among words in the mental lexicon: paradigmatic (meaning), syntagmatic (collocation), and polysemy. The test has been discovered to be closely correlated with L2 reading comprehension ability and has been indicated to have a high degree of internal reliability (Qian, 1999 [37]). The reliability of the test, as reported by Read, is 0.93 and by Qian (2002, 2004 [38; 39]) and Nassaji (2004 [31]) above 0.90.

Thus, WAT was once given prior to the treatment (as pre-test) and once after the treatment (as post-test). During the first class, candidates were given the WAT test and it took approximately 30 minutes to complete. The

appropriate time for the depth of vocabulary knowledge test was 30 minutes, and another 15 minutes was considered for distributing papers, giving directions and collecting them (Nassaji, 2003; Qian, 1999). Thus, the whole process of WAT test took about 45 minutes. It seemed that students did not have problems with the time devoted to the pre-test because they finished and delivered the papers on the exact time that the instructor gave them to complete the papers. So, the same time was also considered for the post-test. The instructor took WAT as a posttest immediately following the treatment. The post-test also took 30 minutes to complete plus another 10 minutes for handing out the papers, giving instructions and accumulate the papers.

Candidates read literary texts due to the nature of their course which was reading comprehension. The use of literary texts to teach a language, first or second language, in general, and to teach reading in particular, has long been considered to be suitable for both fluent and slower readers (Irwansyah, Nurgiyantoro and Sugirin, 2019 [12]). They studied different texts with different genres because each genre opened a new world of words, idioms and collocations to candidates and they could encounter different lexical items. When the pre-test was done, students were divided into two experimental groups of implicit and explicit with no control group (n= 15). The explicit group received direct collocation instruction for five sessions. After teaching collocations, they were supposed to find the collocations of some determined text and turn them in the next class session. They had to find the collocations, find an example sentence in a dictionary, determine which type of collocation they were and make their own sentences.

Another instrument, MAAS, developed by Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003) was given

to students to explore the level of dispositional mindfulness. Then based on the results of the questionnaire, students were divided into two groups of mindful and less mindful. Four students participated in every group. It should be mentioned that the initial number of students that the instructor chose was six for each group but because of the absence of the students during class activities the number was reduced to 4 students for each group. Thus, eight candidates took part in the second phase of the investigation, which focused on the role of mindfulness in learners' development of reading fluency. These participants were assigned to read a text at home first and then record their voices and send them to the researchers. They read and recorded five texts altogether. The audio recording was used to analyze the data.

There were two experimental groups in this study and to compare students' progress from the first test to the second, Wilcoxon Signed- Rank test of reading comprehension test and MannWhitney were employed to compare the performance of the two groups and analyze which group has surpassed the other. SPSS software was used to analyze the collected data.

Results and their discussion

1 Findings related to the second research question

In order to answer the first research question and examine whether teaching collocations affect EFL learners' reading comprehension ability, a reading comprehension test was utilized as one of a pre-tests and post-tests. The following table represents the descriptive statistics of the pre-test and post-test of reading comprehension.

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics

Mean Group N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error

Reading Pre-test 1.00 15 16.93 1.27 .330

2.00 15 16.78 1.35 .349

Reading Post-test 1.00 15 18.58 1.12 .290

2.00 15 17.95 1.58 .408

To ascertain how much improvements each group had in the interval between pre-test and post-test, descriptive statistics was run primarily and then we administered Wilcoxon test, using SPSS software. Subsequent tables represent descriptive statistics for the results of the pre-test and the posttest for the explicit group.

As Table 2 represents, the mean score of the pre-test for the explicit group was 16.93 and that

Descriptive Stati

of the posttest was 18.58. Paired differences of means revealed that mean scores of post-test which was the second stage ascend to 1.65 points. The sig= 0.001 and because it was less than 0.05, it showed that the difference between mean scores of both stages of pre-test and post-test was meaningful.

Table 2

for Explicit Group

Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error

Reading Pre-test 15 16.93 1.27 .330

15 18.58 1.35 .290

Table 3

Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test for Explicit Group

N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks

Pair Pre-Post Negative ranks 0a .00 .00

1 Positive ranks 15b 8.00 120.00

Ties 0c

Total 15

a. Post< pre

b. Post> pre

c. Post= pre

Table 4

Wilcoxon Test Statistics for Explicit Group

Reading Post- Pre

Z -3.432b

Asymp. Sig (2- tailed) .001

a. Wilcoxon signed ranks test

b. Based on negative ranks

To see the difference between the pre-test and post-test of the implicit group, Wilcoxon test was run. Table 5. shows that the mean score of the pre-test for the implicit group was 16.78, and the mean of the post-test was 17.95. paired differences of mean scores of the post-test 1.17 point increased.

As Table 6. Indicates, the significant level (p=0.001) which is less than 0.05. The p value shows that there was a meaningful difference

between mean scores of pre-test and posttest for the implicit group.

According to Wilcoxon tests, both explicit and implicit group's progress from pre-test and post-test, represents that teaching collocations whether explicitly or implicitly, improved participants' reading comprehension ability. So, the first Null Hypothesis was rejected based on the findings of the Wilcoxon tests.

Table 5

Descriptive Statistics for Implicit Group

Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error

Reading Pre-test 15 16.78 1.35 .349

15 17.95 1.58 .408

Table 6

Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test for Implicit Group

N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks

Pair Pre-Post Negative ranks 2a 2.00 4.00

2 Positive ranks 13b 8.92 116.00

Ties 0c

Total 15

a. Post< pre

b. Post> pre

c. Post= pre

Table 7

Wilcoxon test Statistics for Implicit Group

Reading Post- Pre

Z -3.197b

Asymp. Sig (2- tailed) .001

a. Wilcoxon signed ranks test

b. Based on negative ranks

2. Findings related to the second research question

To address the second question and examine whether there is a significant difference

between the effect of explicit collocation instruction and implicit collocation instruction on learners' reading fluency and reading comprehension, two Mann-Whitney Test was run.

One for learners' reading fluency and the other for of pretest and posttest both for explicit and students' reading comprehension ability. The implicit groups. tables below demonstrate the descriptive statistics

Table 8

Descriptive Statistic of Reading Fluency Pretest for Explicit and Implicit Groups

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N Mean Median Std. Deviation Mean rank sum of ranks

Fluency pretest Explicit group 15 11.66 12.0 2.43 17.20 258.0

Fluency pretest Implicit group 15 10.93 11.0 2.40 13.80 207.0

Table 9

Descriptive Statistic of Reading Fluency Posttest for Explicit and Implicit Groups

N Mean Median Std. Deviation Mean rank sum of ranks

Fluency pretest Explicit group 15 12.46 13.0 1.99 17.67 265.0

Fluency pretest Implicit group 15 10.93 11.40 2.44 13.33 200.0

Table 10

Mann-Whitney Test for reading fluency

Fluency post test

Mann- Whitney U 80

Wilcoxon W 200

Z -1.367

Asymp. Sig (2- tailed) .171

Exact sig. [2*(1-tailed sig.)] .187b

Data was presented in three tables. Table 8 showed the descriptive statistics of reading fluency as a pretest in both implicit and explicit groups. As the table shows, the mean score of reading fluency pretest for explicit group was11.66 and that the implicit group was 10.93. According to the above information, no significant difference was found between the performance of explicit and implicit groups.

According to the information of table 9 the mean score of reading fluency as a posttest was 12.46 and the mean score of reading fluency as a posttest for the implicit group was 10.93 which showed that students 'performance in both explicit and implicit group was approximately the same. Since the p-value was greater than 0.05 which is presented in table 5, no meaningful difference existed between the performance of the groups in the reading fluency test.The following

tables reveals students' performance in regard performance between the explicit or implicit with reading comprehension to discover whether groups.

there was a meaningful difference in students'

Table 11

Descriptive Statistic of Reading Comprehension Pretest for Explicit and Implicit Groups

N Mean Median Std. Deviation Mean rank sum of ranks

Comprehension pretest Explicit group 15 16.93 17.0 1.27 16 240

Comprehension pretest Implicit group 15 16.71 17.00 1.31 15 225

Table 12

Descriptive Statistic of Reading Comprehension Posttest for Explicit and Implicit Groups

N Mean Median Std. Deviation Mean rank sum of ranks

Comprehension posttest Explicit group 15 18.58 18.50 1.12 16.67 250

Comprehension posttest Implicit group 15 17.96 18.75 1.58 14.33 215

Table 13

Mann-Whitney Test for Reading Comprehension

Comprehension Posttest

Mann-Whitney U 95

Wilcoxon W 215

Z -.736

Asymp. Sig (2-tailed) .462

Exact sig. [2*(1-tailed sig.)] .486b

a. grouping variable

b. not corrected for ties

Table 11 shows the result of the analysis of of pretest of reading comprehension for the the data collected from students' reading explicit and implicit groups is available. The comprehension test. In this table, the mean score mean score of the explicit group in reading

comprehension as a pretest is 16.93 and that of the implicit group is 16.71. The result shows that the difference between the mean scores of the explicit and implicit group is not meaningful so, we cannot reject the null hypothesis.

As presented in table 12, students' performance in reading comprehension test in the explicit and implicit group was compared. The posttest mean score of reading comprehension test for explicit group is 18.58 and the mean score of the implicit group in this test is 17.96. It revealed that the difference between the mean scores is not significant and students did not gain more benefit from explicit teaching of collocation in their reading course. The p-value supports this claim that is 0.462 which is more than 0.05.

4 3 2 2 1 0

Chart 1 shows the facts regarding the fluency performance of four mindful learners and four less mindful learners in terms of their expression and volume. This chart well reflects that the mindfulness of the learners cannot affect the expression and volume of the learners since the performance of these two groups are comparable. Arsham, Sajedeh, Daya and Paniz

3. Findings related to the third research question In order to discuss the role of mindfulness in the learners' fluency, the researcher used a rubric. This section tries to compare the less mindful students with those of more mindful ones in order to give a better picture of how mindfulness affects each aspect of reading fluency. The data were gathered from the performances of the four mindful participants and four less mindful participants. To have a better illustration of the results, not only did the researchers discussed each aspect separately, but they also discussed the performance on a chart. The following chart reflects the expression and volume criteria, the first aspect of fluency included in the rubric.

I

Fatemeh

are less mindful learners and Shiva, Farzaneh, Mehrnoosh and Fatemeh are mindful learners. With regard to their indices, it can be concluded that all the learners' performances were measured to be 2 or higher and the only exception was Sajedeh's performance which was 1. This is not a persuasive case that can make a difference between mindful and less mindful learners.

Expression and Volume

I

Arsham Sajejedeh Paniz

Daya Shiva Farzaneh Mehrnoosh

Expression and Volume

Chart 1. Comparison of the learners based on their expression and volume

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Phrasing

Arsham Sajejedeh Paniz Daya Shiva Farzaneh Mehrnoosh Fatemeh

■ Phrasing

Chart 2. Comparison of the learners based on their phrasing

Chart 2 illustrates the role of mindfulness in the performances of the mindful and less mindful learners in terms of their phrasing as an index of reading fluency. The results show that there is not a difference between the two groups. According to the chart, among the less mindful learners, Arsham and Daya got 3, and Sajedeh and paniz

got 2. Smilarly, the mindful learners, except Mehrnoosh who got 2, scored 3. This implies that there was only one case of difference between the mindful and less mindful learners and considering the fact that the difference was just one point, it can be concluded the difference between the two groups was not considerable.

4

3

2

1

0

Smoothness

Mill

0

Arsham Sajejedeh Paniz Daya Shiva Farzaneh Mehrnoosh Fatemeh

■ Smoothness

Chart 3. Comparison of the learners based on their smoothness

5

4

3

2

1

Chart 3 depicts the results regarding the learners' performances regarding reading fluency in terms of their smoothness of reading. The results showed that less mindful readers' performance was slightly better than the mindful learners regarding the fact that despite the sameness of mindful learners in terms of their smoothness, Arsham and Parinaz performed slightly better - scored four - and this means that

50 % of the less mindful learners performed better than the mindful ones. This is unexpected considering the fact that less mindful readers are more distracted by the environmental factors and are less focused on the text than the mindful learners. However, the interesting point regarding the mindful learners is their homogeneity of performance, considering the fact that all of them scored three.

Pace

Arsham Sajejedeh Paniz Daya Shiva Farzaneh Mehrnoosh Fatemeh

■ Pace

Chart 4. Comparison of the learners based on their pace

Chart 4. demonstrates the performance of the less mindful and mindful learners regarding the pace of reading. Although the performance of the mindful learners is more homogeneous in terms of pace of reading and thus reading fluency, less mindful learners seem to be more heterogeneous in terms of their pace since they have scored 2, 3 and 4. However, the interesting point is that the means of the learners' performance for both groups is (3.25) but it seems that mindful learners are generally at an average rate.

Considering the aforementioned discussion regarding the effect of mindfulness on the performance of the EFL learners, it can be concluded that the fluency is not heavily affected by the learners' mindfulness, especially in terms

of expression and volume as well as phrasing. However, the results showed that the learners' performance regarding reading fluency was slightly affected in terms of smoothness and pace of reading. However, it is worth mentioning that this variance is not eye-catching.

Discussion

The analysis of the data indicated that teaching collocation explicitly improved learners' depth of vocabulary knowledge based on both groups' progress from pre-test to post-test. However, there were not any significant differences between the effects of teaching the collocation explicitly or implicitly. The experimental group gained more benefit of teaching the collocations weather explicitly or

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5

4

3

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2

1

0

implicitly which is consistent with previous studies. The result of this study confirmed previous findings in the field, which had illustrated the effect of this approach on improving different skills such as reading and writing. In other words, this study was another confirmation in the literature that teaching collocation could be included in EFL language program in which teachers provided some situations for the learners to have exposure by their engagement in collocation learning, collocation tasks and at the same time, reading comprehension tasks. Nuttall (1982) stated that the second best way to help EFL learners to perceive the target language in the context as many native speakers use it precisely. The study suggests that both the implicit and the explicit modalities have advantages in teaching reading. The researchers, accordingly, argue that combining the implicit and explicit modalities would be more beneficial for the learners than using only one modality, as the use of a dual modality would favor and address dual learning strategies. The results obtained by the implicit group shows students gained better reading comprehension, similar to the explicit group. Hunt and Beglar (2005) provide a framework, Paribakht and Wesche (1997 [33]), Nation and Waring (1997 [30]), and Watanabe (1997 [45]) suggest the combination of both modalities for a better reading comprehension. It seems that both types of instruction maximize the pedagogical intervention, improve learning, and need to be structured in accordance with the expected outcome of the teaching and learning activity, and learner characteristics. This combination is in line with Beglar and Hunt's (2005) suggestion for combining implicit and explicit teaching practices. By going through these covert steps, the cognitive mechanism will make use of more and deeper mental processes, not in relation with the time invested but rather the mental processes that

allow more consistency and depth of implantation of the resulting memory traces. In addition to the question of instruction, the results of the present study raise that of choice and adaptation of materials, definition of affective conditions in language teaching and learning, as well as the teaching and learning processes.

Regarding the mindfulness of the learners it should be mentioned that the learners' performance in terms of reading fluency was not considerably affected by their mindfulness. This fact implies that their mindfulness may not be a significant mediator of their fluency similar to their collocation knowledge. In other words, it can be argued that considering the findings of the present study, it can be argued that the participants' fluency may not be influenced by their collocation knowledge and their mindfulness.

Conclusions

Assessing the role of collocations in learner's reading comprehension skills is beneficial as it can help learners to enhance their reading comprehension skills. However the key role in every knowledge acquiring process an instructor has (Gadusova, Haskova, Predanocyova, 2019 [7]; Gadusova, Haskova, Jakubovska, 2018 [6]). And instructors also have a crucial role in assisting learners to develop their collocational knowledge that leads to improvement in reading comprehension and fluency skills. The current study demonstrated that both groups showed some degree of achievement in reading comprehension by increasing the collocation knowledge which is mostly used by native speakers in the context. Evidence in this research shows that both explicit and implicit tasks can affect learner's reading comprehension skill. This study has an implication in pedagogy. The demand of knowing collocations and fixed expression is important for

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EFL students because every language consists of some routine and fixed expression s that is always used by native speakers. EFL instructors should discuss the best task in teaching collocations which can be used efficiently and provide opportunity for students to fully engage in the task.

the instructors need to be sensitive to what method could be more influential regarding the improvement of the learners' fluency.

The results of this study are not conclusive due to some limitations that could not be controlled. We cannot generalize the results of this study to other EFL contexts because of the restriction in our sample size. It appears that the absence of control group has made it impossible to asseverate. Presence of control group would have validated our claims above. Future studies would involve a longitudinal study, larger sample size, from different background, and randomly selected participants.

Moreover, the results showed that neither of the instruction types was influential in terms of the learners reading fluency. Further analysis of the effect of mindfulness on the FFL learners' reading fluency showed that there was an inconsiderable difference between the less mindful and mindful learners. This implies that

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Submitted: 02 February 2020 Accepted: 10 May 2020 Published: 30 June 2020

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