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МАТЕРИАЛЫ И СООБЩЕНИЯ
УДК 81
I.N. Remkhe, L.A. Nefyodova USING CORPORA TOOLS IN TEACHING TRANSLATION1
In this study we seek to provide the theoretical background for corpus-based translation study and the pedagogic value of using corpus tools in teaching translation. We begin by discussing the efficiency of using corpora in translation from the perspective of various linguistic scholars. A view on the ways for enhancing the student-translator's competence by teaching corpora strategies in the translation classroom will be presented and subjected to critical analysis through a practical task-based experiment run in collaboration with the University of Bath, UK. Finally, the proposed findings will be further elaborated by means of a self-assessment survey to give a clearer assumption of the concept's feasibility. As a result of the experiment, the hypothesis about the efficiency of using language corpora systems in the classroom was proved when facing translation problems and looking for strategic solutions. Thus, we suggest corpus-based methodological approach be crucial to further research in corpus-based translation studies.
Key words: corpus-based translation, corpora strategies, translation competence, on-line tools.
1. Introduction
The issue of using electronic corpora in translation is of crucial importance in the search for ways to optimize the process of translation with the help of modern on-line resources. The idea of using corpora as an efficient tool in translation dates back to the early 1990s in works by Zanettin [Zanettin 1998], Bowker [Bowker 1998], Laviosa [Laviosa 1998], Sinclair [Sinclair 1991] and Teubert [Teubert 1996], and then further developed in Lopez-Rodriguez [Lopez-Rodriguez URL: http://www.jostrans.org/issue09/art_lopez_tercedor.php. 2008/], Bernardini and Steward [Bernardini 2003] and Beeby [Beeby 2009]. The corpus-based approach was seen as a new paradigm in Translation Studies. At that time there was discussed a possibility for creating an electronic corpus of texts written for a communicative context, i.e. those which occurred naturally and could be further investigated. As Sinclair puts it, a corpus is 'a collection of naturally-occurring language texts, chosen to characterize a state or variety of a language [which] typically contains many millions of words' [Sinclair 1991: 171]. Teubert stated that we often have to search for second-best matches,
1 Исследование выполнено при финансовой поддержке РГНФ. «Аналогово-когнитивные процессы в лингво-креативной деятельности личности», проект № 15-04-00455.
and that means we have to select one of several alternatives, namely the one that fits the context the best. [...] It should be possible to come up with this match if the translator consults a large corpus [...] and by identifying the context pattern in question, finds the lexical unit that would 'naturally' be used in such a situation. All it needs is an operational definition of context and context pattern [Teubert 1996: 241].
The process of translation that implies interpreting a source text (ST) and generating a target text (TT) in another language requires certain strategic competences that will help to find the right match in TT. It is especially crucial in the case of would-be translators with fewer interpretative and strategic skills compared to professionals; consequently, reliable resources, reference materials and tools are needed to ensure effectiveness in translation and developing the translator's skills. These objectives can be achieved by providing collections of helpful information which facilitates the translator's decision-making and makes the translator feel more secure about the choices made, allowing better and/or faster solutions to be obtained; by offering numerous opportunities for learning the language, the domain, and about the translation process; and by allowing the user to play an active role in the development and use of corpora [Aston 1999: 290].
2. The use of corpora systems within corpus-based translation studies
The fact that Corpora can provide the translator with both linguistic and conceptual knowledge has been widely discussed for the last decade, making Corpora essential for performing various translation tasks. However, there are a few difficulties pointed out by some researchers.
Following Aston, the difficulty of using corpora is that they rarely provide immediate answers to the translator's problems [...] Corpus data have to be interpreted and evaluated comparatively to enable conclusions to be reached, and this requires not only technical skill [...] but above all critical thought (9). Suchlike, according to Gile, the status of corpus analysis would depend 'on the type of analysis and the inferencing done on the basis of its findings. In order to test the claim that it is the quality of socks that will determine prevailingly whether one feels cold or warm in winter, it is not enough to analyze painstakingly the way 1000 people are dressed from head to toe. It is necessary to demonstrate that an efficient method of isolating the effect of the socks from the effect of hats, coats, gloves, etc. has been used [Gile 2002: 362]. Due to some experiments run by researchers testing the use of corpora as a translator's tool, translators find it time-consuming and unreliable at times of tight schedules when coping with translation tasks is seen as a routine job to be done fast and efficiently without spending time on learning new things. It is true to say that working with concordance lines and various grammatical patterns requires time and effort to get to the right result.
Also, Leech states that the data in a corpus may not be appropriate as 'some sentences won't occur, because they are obvious, others because they are false, still others because they are impolite [Leech 1991: 23]. Considering the fact that corpora are "a collection of texts held in machine-readable form and capable of being analyzed automatically or semi-automatically in a variety of ways" [Baker 1995: 225], these texts are compiled for a specific period of time and may turn out to be outdated or the results may be over-sufficient so that an extra-selection process is needed.
Finally, any electronic corpus cannot serve as an independent and self-reliant source, since there is always a human interaction required to make the results reliable and suitable for translation purposes. No computer program can replace a human researcher, which makes the concordance program used in corpora a useful, convenient tool with its functions restricted according to certain investigation purposes.
Apart from some restrictions mentioned above, a well-compiled and representative Corpus ensures fast processing of large amounts of language material provided with translations and other linguistic information to be used for lexical and grammatical studies as well as for tracking language changes or extracting translation equivalents during the translation process. Olohan states that 'ideology that is implicitly encoded in utterances can be uncovered through the study of patterns of association, of which language users may not be overtly aware' [Olohan 2004: 148]. The concordance lines give researchers an opportunity to infer and deduce the meanings of words from the grammatical patterns as well as the collocations in different contexts.
With translator training, the main advantage of corpora lies in shifting the role of the teacher from being the principal information provider to becoming an information facilitator [Beeby 2009: 130-133] to support self-investigation and learning in an autonomous way. The role of intuition and the teacher possessing declarative knowledge is heavily reduced and breaks the common pattern of traditional translation teaching. The new approach to autonomous learning with the use of corpora develops new ways for increasing language competence and is becoming a generally accepted methodology with goals that are different from lexicographical projects. Applying a constructivist approach, where context and cognitive processes are seen as most important, student-translators are given an active role in adapting their mental models and building up their own knowledge and experiences by using corpora as a tool.
3. Corpus typology used in translation teaching
The corpus typology of corpus-based translation studies basically comprises three main types predominantly used in modern research.
1. Monolingual corpora, large collections of texts which may be analyzed for naturalness (e.g. by translators translating into their L2). In addition, it is important to add that such monolingual corpora, such as the British National Corpus and the Cobuilt Bank of English may serve as representative of reference corpora, a yardstick of the language against which to measure deviation.
2. Comparable bilingual corpora, which are normally specialized collections of similar STs in the two languages and which can be 'mined' for terminology and other equivalences.
3. Parallel corpora, of ST-TT pairs, which, when aligned (sentence by sentence or paragraph by
paragraph), can allow the strategies employed by the translator(s) to be examined [Munday 2008: 181].
When used in conjunction with monolingual source and target corpora, a parallel corpus can also allow learners or researchers to compare features of texts produced under the constraint of translation with 'original' texts in both languages [Bernardini 2003: 6].
Since translation competence is regarded as a complex concept implying various skills, it can be presented as an integrated model devised by the PACTE Group [PACTE 2003].
The model presents four sub-competencies with the strategic competence placed in the center as the main controlling factor. According to this model, corpus can be regarded as part of the instrumental sub-competence which involves 'procedural knowledge related to the use of documentation sources and information and communication technology applied to translation' [PACTE 2003: 59].There are two sets of complementary approaches used in corpora-based translation studies and in translator training.
1. Corpus use for learning to translate and learning corpus use to translate [Beeby 2009: 1]
In the first approach corpus is used by the teacher as a ready-made solution based on selected examples to discuss translation problems. The process of decision making is thus guided by the teacher with the help of the data presented and a controlled analysis done by the students. The second approach involves students compiling corpora themselves in order to solve translation problems. In this case, future translators are supposed to be aware of corpus design, search strategies and know how to manage software and work with certain corpus resources.
2. The web for corpus and the web as corpus in translator training [Buenda-Castro 2013: 54-71]
In the 'web for corpus' approach the web is used as a source of texts in digital format for the subsequent implementation of an offline corpus. This is used as part of a bigger concept, known as do-it-yourself (DIY) corpora, developed in twork by Va-rantola [Varantola 2003], Sanchez-Gijon [Sanchez-Gijon 2009], Buendia-Castro and Lopez Rodriguez [Buendia-Castro 2013]. Such corpora are compiled 'for the sole purpose of providing information - either factual, linguistic or field-specific - for the purposes of completing a translation task' [Sanchez-Gijon2009: 115]. The texts can be provided by the teacher, certain information centers or clients, and taken from the Internet as the biggest information source. Thus, the texts are pre-selected and retrieved according to specific constraints and requirements of translation tasks.
Regarding the 'web as corpus' approach, There is no consensus of agreement on the meaning of the expression Web as Corpus [...] there are three ways of approaching the WaC from a methodological point: (i) the Web as a corpus surrogate; (ii) the mega-corpus or mini Web; (iii) the Web as a corpus shop [Buendia-Castro 2013 : 57]. In brief, the internet can itself be referred to as a huge corpus used for linguistic or extra-linguistic conceptual information related to a translation task. The web can be queried by using conventional search engines, special Web concordancers and other tools, such asWebAsCorpus [WebAsCorpus URL: http://webascorpus.org] or KWiCFinder [KWiCFinder URL: http://www.kwicfinder.com; Zanettin 2012: 59] to carry out a linguistic analysis using the Internet.
Fig. 1. Translation competence model of the PACTE Group [PACTE 2003: 60]
4. Research design and methodology
Purpose and Objectives of Research. The study was approached from two perspectives: 1. The use of corpora systems within corpus-based Translation Studies; 2. Methodological value of National Language Corpora in the translation classroom. The main objective of this work is to describe the main advantages and constraints of using corpora in translation research as well as the pedagogic value of corpora systems in translation teaching with data provided from the experiment.
Hypotheses. In the initial stage of the research we started from the following general hypothesis: using corpora tools in translation work can raise the learner's autonomy in using translation strategies and enhancing the translator's competence.
Particular hypotheses are as follows:
1) Corpus is used as an independent source of language data which is seen as a reliable tool to justify translation solutions when translating into L2 since it comprises natural communicative contexts and most frequent collocations that help student translators to keep up with most up-to-date and adequate translation equivalents.
2) Introducing strategies of using corpora with their concordance systems and other online tools along with teaching how to manage related problems will help students to facilitate the translation process at a higher quality level as well as develop new techniques of decision-making in case of difficulties they might encounter in their future professional work.
Sample group and content. The sample group for the first stage of the experiment was formed of 35 student-translators doing a course on Russian-English translation at the University of Bath, UK, the content sample was formed of 3 specialized texts from the area of technology and mass media. At the introductory phase we carried out a survey to find out the degree of the students' competence in using various translator software, including translation memory software, Web concordance software, terminology on-line references, quality assessment software. In the second stage corpora strategies were taught, in particular, how to use the Russian National Corpus to raise students' quality assurance when translating into L2. In the next stage the students were asked to do a translation of specialized texts in the area of technology and media to see if the strategies introduced can be of any practical help. Finally, the students were given self-assessment sheets to evaluate the progress in their abilities to use corpora and on-line tools in translating and assess their usefulness in their future professional work.
Methods of Research Used. In order to valorize the hypotheses and attain the purpose and objectives
of the research, we used the following methods and research tools: task-based translation teaching with a comparative analysis of translations and concordances found in the Russian National Corpora. To interpret results we used mathematical-statistical methods and methods for their graphic representation.
Within the experiment, we aimed at observing the following correlations: a) between using corpora tools and translation competence; b) between diversifying online translation tools and increasing the learner's autonomy.
5. Data analysis
The case study to exemplify the use of monolingual and parallel corpus in translation studies was carried out in several stages.
The results of the first stage showed that the level of competence in using some of the given electronic tools is comparatively low. It mainly concerns using corpora tools, specialized dictionaries and encyclopedias. However, search engines and multilingual specialized dictionaries were used by almost all of the subjects. This proves the fact that the students tend to look for instant decisions by using the most conventional forms of search, such as Google and online translators, which are seen as user-friendly and providing quick responses. This, though, can produce confusing results because of the lack of reliable content or insufficient context.
At the next stage we taught corpora strategies, in particular, how to use the Russian National Corpus to raise quality assurance when translating into L2. In this part of the experiment the students were given selected examples of possible translation difficulties and tailor-made explanations of how to solve them using corpora tools, and concordance lines. Considering the fact that a set of concordance variants gives an instant picture of genre conventions, register, textual micro- and macro-structure, lexical and syntactic analysis and other details sufficient to analyze any given translation unit, it can as well help the translator to come up with a possible translation. There are no ready-made solutions, but there are instant clues to the choice of the right collocation and examples of how it works in a natural context. For example, when translating the phrase the fate was doomed we can check out the translation of was doomed by entering the words судьба была into the concordance system of the Russian National Corpus of a monolingual type.
As a result, we have two options that best suit the context, such as судьба была решена and судьба была предрешена, which can be called a confident choice since it is approved by the wider context
which can be further extended by clicking on the arrow on the sides.
Apart from learning how to use concordances, the students were taught some strategies for using parallel corpora in the Russian National Corpus that establish characteristics peculiar to translations in ST-TT combinations where, again, by typing the word or collocation in question we can get a range of concordances with their actual translation in the English language or vice versa. Thus, with the help of alignment procedures we get a correspondent translated component in a parallel text to be analyzed and then used as a relevant equivalent adjusted to the target text in the translation task. At the final stage, the students were asked to do a translation of specialized
texts in the area of technology and media to see if the strategies introduced can be of any actual help.
The diagram shows that the Project led to fruitful results with the students' feedback being generally positive. They appreciated the open access to the Russian National Corpus and the possibility of getting high quality translation with corpus tools that can produce immediate solutions to frequent translation problems they had faced earlier, such as using collocations and the correct endings in Russian words. The advantages of the parallel corpus were also marked as rather useful and learner-oriented. The use of the Internet as corpus made the students become familiar with certain strategies and constraints in the translation process.
43
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100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
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On-line resources
i Wikipedia
I Thesaurus
I Search Engines
i Multilingual specialized dictionaries
Images in Search Engines
Encyclopedias
Monolingual specialised dictionaries I Internet Forums
I using corpora tools
Corpora
Fig. 2. The results of a survey done with student-translators to assess the level of their competence in using various translation tools
взвыл, ропща на судьбу, ибо судьба в течение нескольких минут. Наша судьба
Твоя судьба не эти бляхи, вся моя судьба не могла так подумать! Её судьба — Да-с, удивительная [Советский десантник, nick] "удьба думалось, достанься другое имя — и терялся, оставшись без «патрона». Его судьба была одной из немногих, чья судьба
была там, в Небе, только была решена. Мы не знали была для меня дороже личного была бы иной.
была другая. II она продолжала была этого князя Василия Иваныча была на моей стороне, поезд была бы иной, талантов было была предрешена. Второй тур борьбы была решена Карталовым.
1
Fig. 3. Screenshot of a set of concordances with the phrase ' судьба была' on the Russian National Corpus website [Национальный корпус русского языка URL: http://www.ruscorpora.ru]
Fig. 4. The results of a self-assessment survey to check progress in gaining the translator's skills of using translating tools
6. Conclusions
Empirical investigations done within the study revealed valuable features justifying the value of corpora tools in Translation Studies and the translation classroom, in particular. Using the methodology of task-based analysis and a self-assessment survey we received evidence of a positive result of acquiring corpus strategies in the translation process by students. When using corpus as a translation tool, matching the data to the translation is not possible all the time. There are no precise corresponding units or identical contexts. With a concordance the student needs to do a certain analysis of identifying and generalizing given samples to establish the given pattern and then apply it to its own context. However, the efficiency of this process may increase with practice and recurring patterns. While analyzing concordances the student-translator learns other patterns and subconsciously remembers more by grouping various uses with different meanings. These findings redefine our understanding that referring to National language corpora resources is always rewarding in language terms and makes the amateur translator feel secure about his or her choices. Also, noting that unlike conventional search engines, the content of national language corpora is controlled by an editorial team, it proves to be a reliable selection of texts.
The results obtained confirm not only the hypothesis presented, but also the fact that there is also the question of competence that approximates with using corpora tools as part of an instrumental sub-confidence which ensures the student-translator acts as a user and developer of his/her own knowledge systems when managing the process of translation with corpora strategies or compiling his/her own corpus related to a specific translation task. Moreover, as has been demonstrated, a certain degree of learners' autonomy proves to be ad-
vantageous in the sense of raising the translator's competence and adjusting a would-be translator to his/her future professional work at its early stages.
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И.Н. Ремхе, Л.А. Нефедова ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЕ ЛИНГВИСТИЧЕСКОГО КОРПУСА В ОБУЧЕНИИ ПЕРЕВОДУ
В данной статье рассматривается вопрос о теоретических и практических основаниях использования возможностей лингвистического корпуса в обучении переводу. Посредством анализа работ современных ученых, занимающихся исследованиями в области корпусной лингвистики и использования корпусных систем в дидактических целях, авторами сделан вывод об эффективности обращения к корпусу при переводе с целью повышения переводческой компетентности студентов и выработки переводческих стратегий, позволяющих более уверенно справляться с переводческими задачами в условиях обучения переводу. Предлагаемая автором гипотеза об эффективности корпусных систем при обучении получила экспериментальную верификацию на базе университета г. Бат, Великобритании при работе со студентами-переводчиками по курсу перевода с русского языка на английский на основе национального корпуса русского языка. Результаты работы, отраженные в анкетировании по итогам эксперимента на основе саморефлексии студентов, а также анализ непосредственного процесса работы над переводами подтвердили предположение о том, что обращение к корпусным системам, включая систему конкорданс, можно по праву считать новой методикой работы на основе качественного языкового ресурса, позволяющего расширять знания о языке и оперативно справляться с переводческими трудностями. Это раскрывает новые возможности для развития нового направления корпусного переводоведения.
Ключевые слова: корпусный перевод, корпусные стратегии перевода, компетентность переводчика, ресурсы онлайн.
