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34
УДК 81'366.58
Т. И. Раздина
доцент, кандидат педагогических наук,
доцент кафедры грамматики и истории английского языка ФГПН МГЛУ e-mail: ti_razdina@outlook.com
УПОТРЕБЛЕНИЕ ПЕРЕХОДНЫХ ГЛАГОЛОВ КАК НЕПЕРЕХОДНЫХ В АНГЛИЙСКОМ ДИСКУРСЕ
В статье представлены результаты наблюдений и анализа употребления переходных глаголов как непереходных как способа выражения пассива по смыслу в средствах массовой информации, новостных сообщениях, обзорах литературы и рецензиях, повествовательных и описательных текстах, а также в повседневном общении. В статье делается вывод о том, что активные формы глаголов с пассивным значением используются в контекстах, в которых внимание адресата фокусируется на событии как таковом и при этом дается положительная или отрицательная оценка данному событию. Пассивные формы одних и тех же глаголов используются в более формальных контекстах, в которых адресату сообщается о событии как имеющем место или уже свершившемся факте, при этом место и время события обычно указываются.
Ключевые слова: непереходный; переходный; пассив по смыслу; положительная или отрицательная оценка; формальный контекст; уместный; неуместный; неприемлемый; ошибочный.
T. I. Razdina
Ph.D., Ass. Prof., Chair of Grammar and History of English, Department of Humanities and Applied Sciences, MSLU e-mail: ti_razdina@outlook.com
INTRANSITIVE USE OF TRANSITIVE VERBS IN ENGLISH DISCOURSE
The paper presents the results of the observations and analysis of the intransitive use of transitive verbs as notional passives in mass media, news bulletins, surveys and reviews, narrative and descriptive texts and everyday speech and writing. The paper concludes that the active forms of the verbs conveying a passive idea are used in contexts in which the focus of attention of the addressee is drawn to the event itself by giving it a positive or negative evaluation. The passive forms of the same verbs are used in more formal, matter-of-fact contexts in which the addressee is informed about an event going on or accomplished, with the place and time of the event usually indicated.
Key words: intransitive; transitive; notional passives; positive or negative evaluation; formal contexts; appropriate; inappropriate; unaccepted; incorrect.
The article discusses intransitive use of transitive verbs in English discourse. To start with, we give an overview of linguistic literature on the issue in question.
Verbs taking a direct object are generally called transitive, those that do not take a direct object are called intransitive.
A great many verbs in English can be used both transitively and intransitively. For example:
1. The wind blew the papers out of my hand.
2. The wind was blowing round the street-corners.
3. I start work on Wednesday.
4. The World Championships start in two weeks time.
In sentences 1 and 3 the verbs blow and start function as transitive verbs. They are followed by direct objects the papers and work. In sentences 2 and 4 the same verbs function intransitively. They are not followed by a direct object.
Verbs that can be used both transitively and intransitively have [I, T], [I; T], [I/T] grammar codes in dictionaries.
Only transitive verbs can have passive forms and they are sometimes called passive verbs. Those verbs which cannot have passive forms are called active verbs.
A passive verb is defined as one in which the subject undergoes the process or action expressed in the verb whereas an active verb as one whose action is performed by its own grammatical subject [13, p. 411-412].
A few active verbs are said to have a passive meaning:
This surface cleans easily. These clothes wash well. This wine is selling
quickly. What's showing at the cinema this week? Her novel is reprinting
already [1, p. 243].
It is sometimes mentioned in grammar books that there are verbs whose primary meaning is transitive and whose secondary meaning is intransitive. Here belong, according to the authors, such verbs as sell, read, add, act, etc:
This book sells well. Though Dora tried hard the figures would not add
[6, p. 96].
Active constructions with a passive meaning are regarded as notional passives (the car handles well) [21, p. vii] or as middle voice, or as mediopassive (The movie is screening in downtown cinemas) [13, p. 349].
Verbs that can be used both transitively and intransitively are often called ergative verbs:
Peter closed the door. The door closed (http://www.learningenglish.british council.org/ar/english-grammar/ergative-verbs).
The term ergative is said to have been applied to verbs whose subjects are not agents, but "patients" of the action:
The kettle boiled. The hotel is renovating. Wax will melt under low heat. The gap has widened between rich and poor [13, p. 187].
In Longman Exams Dictionary (2006) an ergative verb is defined as one that can be either transitive or intransitive, with the same word used as the object of the transitive form and as the subject of the intransitive form, such as cooked in the sentences He cooked the potatoes and The potatoes cooked quickly [23, p. 498].
In Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2002) an ergative verb is said to be able to have its object as its subject without changing its meaning. For example, open is an ergative verb because you can say I opened the door or The door opened [24, p. 465].
Some verbs are listed in grammar manuals as common ergative verbs: begin, break, change, close, drop, crack, dry, end, finish, grow, improve, increase, move, open, shake, start, stop, tear, turn:
I broke the glass. I dropped the glass and it broke. The referee blew his whistle and started the match. The match started at 2.30. We grew some tasty potatoes. The potatoes were growing well.
Many verbs to do with cooking are also regarded as ergative: bake, boil, cook, defrost, freeze, melt, roast:
You should roast the meat at 200 degrees centigrade. The meat was roasting in a hot oven. I always defrost the meat before I cook it. I am waiting for the meat to defrost.
Verbs to do with vehicles are often ergative: back, crash, drive, fly, reverse, run, sail, start, stop I'm learning to fly a plane:
The plane flew at twice the speed of sound. He crashed his car into a tree. His car crashed into a tree (http://www.learningenglish.britishcouncil.org/ar/ english-grammar/ergative-verbs).
Ergative uses of verbs are assumed to be on the increase, especially in British English [13, p. 188].
The increasing use of intransitives has been observed in both American and British English, in examples such as the word derives from Spanish, or the word is spreading. The intransitive use of derive is said to be commoner in American sources and spread in British, however, it is suggested that "the overall rate of innovation is much the same" [13, p. 548].
The overview of linguistic literature makes it possible to assume that quite a few transitive verbs in English can be used intransitively as notional passives. In other words, active forms of some transitive verbs can be used to express a passive meaning like in the example sentences: Her novel is reprinting already. The hotel is renovating. The number of such verbs, according to linguistic data, is increasing. The question arises in what contexts in speech and writing it is acceptable and not incorrect to use, for example, is reprinting and not is being reprinted, is renovating and not is being renovated, and above all, sell and not is sold, is playing, and not is being played, was showing and not was being shown, has sold and not has been sold , will sell and not will be sold etc., to express a passive meaning.
In view of the question we raised here, further in the article, we analyse intransitive use as notional passives of transitive verbs sell, pay, read, play, hold, show, translate as we observed they appear in texts of mass media, news bulletins, surveys and reviews, narrative and descriptive texts and everyday speech and writing in current English.
1.
Don't miss out - book now for Henley!
Mail readers can take advantage of a special early-booking deal for tickets to one of the country's leading literary festivals, at Henley-on-Thames, supported by the Daily Mail. By booking now, before tickets go on general sale, you can secure your seat at more than 120 events. Many events sell out on the first day of public booking - so book now with the Mail to get ahead of the queue [25, p. 50].
Many events is the grammatical subject, but not the doer of the action. The active form of the transitive verb sell out is used intransitively as notional passive in a context in which it is important to emphasize the popularity of the Henley Literary Festival and the necessity to book the tickets in advance. The passive form are sold out would be inappropriate in this context.
2.
You don't feel at ease when your friend tells you that his books don't sell and he can't place his short stories; the managers won't even read his plays, and
when he compares them with some of the stuff that's put on does seem a bit hard [9, p. 15-16].
His books is, as in the text above, the grammatical subject, but not the doer of the action. The active form don't sell is used intransitively with a passive meaning to suggest the idea that the fact that the books don't sell is to do either with the books themselves or with the author. The passive form aren't sold would be inappropriate in this context.
3.
'Well, it has been a bit disappointing. Only a hundred and sixty-five copies sold a year after publication. And not a single review' [8, p. 51].
The active form sold is used intransitively with a passive meaning in a context in which the author wanted to express his disappointment over lack of success with his book (a bit disappointing, a year after publication, not a single review). The passive form were sold would be inappropriate in this context.
4.
Glastonbury 2015 has sold out in less than 30 minutes.
Glastonbury 2015 sells out in record time.
The 15, 000 pre-sale tickets sold out in quarter of an hour.
Glastonbury Festival 2015 Deposits are now sold out.
About 15,000 pre-sale tickets were sold earlier this week and the remaining
120,000 went in just 26 minutes quicker than the 87 minutes it took to sell
them in 2013 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/29496682).
The active forms has sold out, sells out, sold out are used intransitively as notional passives with the aim of emphasizing how quickly the tickets for the popular event Glastonbury Festival 2015 went in. The prepositional phrases in less than 30 minutes, in record time, in quarter of an hour collocate with the active verbs has sold, sells out, sold out. The passive forms are sold out, were sold out are used simply to inform the public that the selling out of the tickets has already been finished. The adverb now and the adverb phrase earlier this week are used to particularize the big event. They go together with the passive verbs are sold out, were sold out.
5.
Dylan manuscript sells for over $2m (http://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/ jun/24/bob-dylans-bbc.com/news).
The active form sells is used as notional passive with a view to emphasizing the price of Dylan's manuscript. The verb collocates with the prepositional phrase for over $2m.
6.
'Holy Grail' Superman Comic Sells for $ 3.2m (http://www.news.sky.com/ story/1324767) (same as in 5).
7.
In 2010, John Lennon's handwritten lyrics for 'A Day in the Life', the final track on the Beatles' classic 1967 album Sgt Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, sold for $1.2m, the record for such a sale (http://www.news.bbc.co.uk/2f in/entertainment/874910) (same as in 5 and 6).
In contexts in which the price of a product is indicated and emphasized as in 5-7 passive forms are not used.
8.
Elza came back into our lives in rather dramatic fashion. One of her college classmates revived a number of pieces Elza had composed called 'Higher Consciousness'. The music later became the sound track to a television series on angels, which was ironic, as Simon pointed out, since Elza was not fond of Christian mythology. But then, overnight it seemed, everyone was wild for anything having to do with angels. The series received huge ratings, a CD of the sound track sold moderately well, and Simon started finding new self-worth in Elza's small fame [17, p. 109].
The active form sold is used as notional passive with the focus on the kind of CD of the sound track. The adverb phrase moderately well collocates with the active form sold but not with the passive form was sold.
9.
The concert tickets cost too much and sold badly [22].
The active form sold is used as notional passive with the focus on the cost of the concert tickets, which was the result of bad selling. The passive form were sold does not collocate with the word badly and would be inappropriate in this context.
10.
Dear Mr. Dyer,
I have written you no fewer than five letters over the last four months in the hope that you would be able to let us have at least some sort of synopsis for a second book as a follow-up to Fiesta at Cala Fuerte.
Cala Fuerte has sold well and into its third printing and negotiations are under way for a paperback [14, p. 121].
The active form has sold is used as notional passive with the focus on the popularity of the book Cala Fuerte. The passive form has been sold does not collocate with the adverb well and cannot be used in this context.
11.
The film has been sold to distributors in more than 40 countries and will be released in the US on 1 November, 2013 (http://www.theguardian.com/ film/2013/oct/04/diana-reviews-devastating-director).
The passive form has been sold is used in a formal context to break the news about a film. The active form has sold would be unacceptable and incorrect in this context.
12.
There is a lot of death, disease and rationing in Oranges For Christmas but the reason it sold so well is because it is ultimately as comforting as a cup of hot, sweet tea and a milk chocolate digestive [12, p. 27-28].
The active form sold is used here as notional passive with the focus on the author's appreciation of the book Oranges For Christmas. It collocates with the adverb phrase so well. The passive form was sold cannot go together with the adverb phrase so well and would be inappropriate in this context.
13.
New tablet sold only in North Korea (http://www.cnn.northkoreatech.org/ 2013/08).
The active form sold is used intransitively as notional passive in a context with the aim of describing to specialists the new tablet computer and informing them that it was only North Korea that considered it possible to buy the new tablet.
14.
Ella was determined to raise the mood. She asked them about property prices in Tara Road. One house there had sold for a fortune recently [2, p. 31].
The active form had sold is used intransitively as notional passive and collocates with the prepositional phrase for a fortune. The reader's attention is drawn here to the big price of the house. The passive form had been sold does not collocate with the prepositional phrase for a fortune and would be inappropriate in this context.
15.
And on tomorrow night's show I've invited someone whose latest album is really selling like the proverbial hot cakes. Yes, you guessed it - Mark Williams will be joining us here in the studio to play some of the tracks from the album and to tell us a little more about the dates of his forthcoming world tour. So make sure you tune in around this time tomorrow evening - 740 on your dial, Radio Metro [3, p. 144].
The active form is really selling is used intransitively as notional passive with the aim of emphasizing the popularity of the latest album. It collocates with the idiomatic prepositional phrase like the proverbial hot cakes. The passive form is being sold does not collocate with the prepositional phrase like the proverbial hot cakes and cannot be used in this context.
16.
Katherine says that one thing she does is to conduct training on the sales floor when trade is slack, which means that she trains the sales in the part of the shop in which goods are sold when the shop is not busy because there are few customers [4, p. 193].
The passive form are sold is used in this context to inform the reader formally about the place and time when the goods in the shop are sold. The active form sell cannot be used intransitively as notional passive in this context. The choice of sell here would be grammatically incorrect.
17.
David: I must say, Katherine, I think, I get a kick out of making the best profit I can. I'm always competing with myself to beat last season's figures The customer profile keeps changing - styles, size scales and preferred colours vary constantly - which gives an added dimension to the task. Katherine: I think that knowing what will sell is very instinctive. I have to be prepared to commit myself and take risks. I think my success is down to the quality of my team and I'm keen on helping in their development. I recommend individuals for management training courses and follow their progress on those courses and I conduct training on the sales floor when trade is slack [4, p. 256].
The active form will sell is used intransitively as notional passive to refer to the demands of Katherine's job and the necessity to know when the sale will be a success. The passive form will be sold would be inappropriate in this context.
18.
When there is a demand, a product will sell [20, p. 6].
The active form will sell is used intransitively as notional passive. The author's intention is to say that the selling of a product depends on its demand. The passive form will be sold would be inappropriate in this context.
19.
Jonny was making the record primarily because he knew that the Don loved such songs and it would be a perfect Christmas gift for him. He also had a hunch that the record would sell in the high numbers, not a million, of course [15, p. 183].
The active form would sell is used intransitively as notional passive to express the character's strong belief in the success of his record (a hunch; in the high numbers; not a million, of course). The passive form would be sold would be inappropriate in this context.
20.
Rare Psalm book sells for $14.2 m.
For the first time since 1947, and only the second time since the 19th century, a copy of the first book printed in America will be sold at auction (http:// edition.cnn.com/11/27ratpkg-most-va).
The passive form will be sold is used with the purpose of formal announcement of a particular important event. The intransitive use of the active form will sell as notional passive would be unacceptable and incorrect in this context.
21.
This job pays well [22, p. 990].
The active form pays is used intransitively as notional passive in speaking about a job that gives you good money. The verb pay normally collocates with the adverb well or can be used on its own. The passive form is paid does not collocate with the adverb well and would be inappropriate in this context.
22.
Britain can afford to increase the amount its lowest paid workers earn, the Chancellor has announced. 'I believe Britain can afford an above-inflation increase in the minimum wage so we restore its real value for people and
make sure we have a recovery for all and that work always pays, he told the BBC (http://www.news.sky.com/story/1196412/minimum) (same as in 21).
23.
Born in poverty in Seattle in 1942, his ancestry reads like a history of America, giving him Irish and Cherokee genes, as well as those of an African-American slave and her white plantation overseer [25, p. 43].
The active form reads is used intransitively as notional passive in a review of a film about a famous actor. The active form reads collocates here with the phrase like a history of America. The passive form is read cannot collocate with the phrase like a history of America and would be inappropriate in this context.
24.
Although this book makes a compassionate and psychologically subtle effort to rescue the heiress from the reductive cliches of reclusive eccentricity, her life still reads as sad and stunted [25, p. 51].
The active form reads is used intransitively as notional passive in a book review about a character of a book. The active form reads collocates here with the prepositional phrase as sad and stunted. The passive form is read cannot go together with the phrase as sad and stunted and would be inappropriate in this context.
25.
The play reads better than it acts [21] (same as in 23-24).
26.
A fragile ceasefire agreed on 5 September is generally holding, but clashes have continued in some areas, especially around Donetsk airport (http://www. bbc.co.uk/news/world-29093361).
The active form is holding is used as notional passive in a news bulletin about a current event. The subject of the sentence is not the doer of the action, but is viewed as if it were. The focus of attention is on a fragile ceasefire rather than on it being held by opposing forces. The author is saying here that there is peace, though fragile and not everywhere (is generally holding).
The use of the passive form is generally being held in this context, though quite acceptable formally, nevertheless would shift the focus of attention from a fragile ceasefire to what is being done to hold it.
27.
A 'Day of Silence' called by President Petro Poroshenko is being held in eastern Ukraine in an attempt to kick start a much-violated ceasefire deal (http://www. bbc.com/news/world-europe 30384665).
The passive form is being held is used in a context similar to the one above. The agent phrase with by, however, presupposes the use of a passive, not an active form. The information focus is on the action being done rather than on the situation as it is at the moment. The choice of an active form is holding in this context would be inappropriate and grammatically incorrect.
28.
There seems to have been a realistic view that the truce wouldn't hold much beyond Christmas (http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-30417641).
The active form wouldn't hold is used in a context similar to the one in 26. This is part of a story from the BBC NEWS MAGAZINE about the Christmas truce between the British, French and German soldiers during WW1 in 1914.
The verb wouldn't hold collocates with the noun truce and the adverb much. The passive form wouldn't be held does not collocate with the noun truce and the adverb much. The information focus is on the truce rather than on the actions done to achieve it. What is implied here is that the truce is temporary (wouldn't hold much). The passive form wouldn't be held would be inappropriate in this context.
29.
A devotional music is playing on the screen. Armaan and his mother are climbing towards the shrine of Vaishno Devi [16, p. 37].
The active form is playing is used as notional passive in a descriptive passage as background to the events developing in the story.
30.
Little bells clang against the door as I walk into the shop. It smells of soap, steam, hair lotion, and elderly flesh. The barber glances up at me. "Haircut?" I ask. He nods at the row of empty straight-backed chairs with magazines neatly stacked on a rack at one end of the row. Sinatra is playing on the radio. I sit down and leaf through a copy of Reader's Digest [10, p. 253] (same as in 27).
31.
Behind the beach huts, installed on a piece of vacant ground, there was a winter fair. The place was small and almost deserted. The candyfloss machine was taped up with the message Out of Order. But tinkly music was playing and in the middle of the ground stood a children's carousel, set up with miniature cars, aeroplanes, space-ships and tanks [19, p. 181].
The active form was playing is used intransitively with a passive meaning as background music in a descriptive passage.
32.
Folk music was playing - from an old battery-operated cassette machine Rudy had picked up at the flea-market in Glic - when the food was gone, all four of them got up to dance [19, p. 190] (same as in 29).
33.
A tango was playing, and he was instructing her. 'Look your knees should be like this. Drop your shoulders like that' [7, p. 197] (same as in 29-30).
34.
'Mum, Dad. There's something I have to tell you.'
The old songs were playing. Tony Bennett live at Carnegie Hall was on the stereo, although it could just have easily been Sinatra or Dean Martin or Sammy Davis Junior. In my parents' home the old songs had never stopped playing. 'Well, it looks like Gina's left me,' I said [11, p. 68] (same as in 29-31).
35.
I was still the first to arrive. It was dark inside the restaurant and loud pop music was being played on a stereo system. At the maitre d's lectern a young woman was mouthing the words to the music [5, p. 181].
The passive form was being played is used in a descriptive passage similar to those illustrated above in which the active form was playing is used intransitively as notional passive.
Admittedly, the passive form was being played may still occur in a descriptive text but the active form was playing used intransitively as notional passive is a more common alternative in current English.
36.
'Apart from the show, what other plans do you have for the future?' 'Nothing definite. I'm doing a play at the moment. It's called The Man Who
Became A Dog and it's showing in Sydney' [3, p. 138].
The active form is showing is used intransitively as notional passive to refer to a play reported to be going on at the theatre at the moment.
37.
His paintings are being shown at the local art gallery [22, p. 1248].
The passive form are being shown is used in a context similar to the context illustrated above (it's showing in Sydney).
38.
Her recent sculptures are being shown at the Hayward Gallery [3, p. 1423]
(same as in 35).
The passive form are being shown is still an alternative use in contexts about public events which are reported as going on now, i.e. about a play at a theatre, film on a screen, a television show, a display of pictures in an art gallery, etc. However, the active form as notional passive is the preferred choice in current English speech and writing.
39.
'I wouldn't want to discourage you from hearing my paper this afternoon.
I went over it last night in the plane while the movie was showing, and I was
pretty pleased with it. The movie was O. K. too' [8, p. 18].
The active form was showing is used intransitively with a passive meaning as background to what a character was doing while on a plane.
40.
The film was shown on television last night [23, p. 1422].
The passive form was shown is the only possible choice in this context because it refers to a particular event that took place last night. The active form showed as notional passive would be unacceptable and grammatically incorrect.
41.
The match was shown live. It is now showing at cinemas across London
[23, p. 1422].
The choice of the passive form was shown live here is similar to the choice of was shown on television last night in 38. Both events are presented as mere facts. The past active form showed as notional passive would be regarded as grammatically incorrect.
42.
Taron Egerton, a fast-rising young actor, has just arrived in San Diego for the
annual Comic-Con convention, where footage from Kingsman will be shown
today [25, p. 45].
The passive form will be shown is used as a mere fact about an event that will take place today. The active form will show as notional passive would be unacceptable and grammatically incorrect in this context.
43.
Poetry doesn't usually translate well [23, p. 1646].
The active form doesn't translate is used intransitively as notional passive. It collocates with the adverb well. The passive form is translated doesn't collocate with the adverb well. And above all, the statement doesn't refer to any particular event. It is about poetry in general. That is why the passive form is translated would be inappropriate in this context.
44.
Boko Haram translates roughly from the Hausa language as 'Western
education is forbidden' (http://www. msn.com/book-haram/ar-BBbox).
The active form translates is used intransitively as notional passive. The subject of the sentence is not the doer of the action but is seen as if it were. The active form translates collocates with the adverb roughly. The passive form does not collocate with the adverb roughly. What the author is saying here is that Boko Haram means "Western education is forbidden" in the Hausa Language. The information focus is on Boko Haram as it is. The passive form is translated refers to somebody's activity and therefore would be inappropriate in this context.
The results of the analysis of intransitive use of transitive verbs sell, pay, read, play, show, hold, translate as notional passives could be summed up as follows.
1. The verbs sell, pay, read. translate are used intransitively as notional passives in contexts in which the focus of attention is drawn to the event itself. These verbs usually collocate with words and phrases which give some positive or negative evaluation of the event. To these refer such as well, so well, moderately well, badly, like the proverbial hot cakes, like a history of America, roughly, generally, etc. The passive forms do not
collocate with such words and phrases and their use must be regarded as inappropriate.
2. The verb play is used intransitively as notional passive in descriptive texts as background music.
3. The verb show is used intransitively as notional passive in advertisements or public announcements about events reported to be going on at the moment.
4. The verb hold is used intransitively as notional passive in collocation with the words ceasefire and truce in contexts with the aim of breaking news about a temporary stopping of fighting.
5. The passive forms are used in formal contexts in which the events are presented as mere facts with the place and time of the happenings usually indicated (like in goods are sold when the shop is not busy, the book will be sold at auction, the film was shown on television last night). The use of the active forms as notional passives must be considered unacceptable and grammatically incorrect in such contexts.
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