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Д.С. Гриднев - аспирант, Южный федеральный университет, Ростов-на-Дону, Россия, dgridn ev14@gmail. com,
D.S. Gridnev - postgraduate student, Southern federal university, Rostov-on-Don, Russia; Л.Г. Матвеева - д.э.н, профессор, Южный федеральный университет, Ростов-на-Дону, Россия, matveeva_lg@mail.ru,
L.G. Matveeva - doctor of economic sciences, professor, Southern federal university, Rostov-on-Don,
Russia.
СТРАТЕГИИ ИНТЕРНАЦИОНАЛИЗАЦИИ ПРОМЫШЛЕННЫХ КЛАСТЕРОВ ЧИСТЫХ ТЕХНОЛОГИЙ В РЕГИОНАХ ЕС INTERNATIONALIZATION STRATEGIES OF CLEANTECH CLUSTERS IN EUROPEAN REGIONS
Аннотация. В статье обосновывается важность расширенного представления проблемы формирования стратегий интернационализации кластеров чистых технологий в промышленности регионов. Задачи модернизации региональной экономики непосредственно связаны с вовлечением кластерного бизнеса, ориентированного на межрегиональные взаимодействия, в процессы капитализации регионального потенциала. Цель статьи - исследование возможностей интернационализации кластеров чистых технологий как специфической формы их стратегического поведения и проведение межрегионального анализа развития международной коммуникации кластеров как реализации некоторого набора стратегий. Теоретико-методологической платформой интернационализации кластеров чистых технологий является совокупность взаимосвязанных концепций и теорий: теории экономического роста и регионального развития в части управления потенциалом региональных кластеров с учетом параметров мезоэкономической политики; теорий промышленного развития и промышленных кластеров. Предложено авторское понимание сущности кластеров чистых технологий и стратегии их интернационализации. В отличие от существующих подходов регионального стратегирования, ориентированных преимущественно на определение вариантов рационального использования в кластерах внутренних ресурсов региона, в статье реализуется подход к оценке эффективности их интернационализации как стратегического ресурса развития региона. Результаты настоящего исследования могут послужить ориентиром для разработки стратегий регионального развития. Дальнейшее направление исследований связано с разработкой механизмов вовлечения малого бизнеса, локализующего свою деятельность на периферии макрорегиона, в структуру кластера чистых технологий. Рассмотренный в статье положительный опыт кластерного взаимодействия на примере стран ЕС в современных условиях может использоваться при определении направлений и конфигураций эффективного сотрудничества России с дружественными странами в промышленной сфере.
Abstract. This article substantiates that the problem of internationalization strategies of regional cleantech clusters is of great importance. The development of the meso-level economy depends on the involvement of its business clusters in the process of regional potential capitalization. The aim of the article is to investigate the internationalization of cleantech clusters as a specific form of their strategic behavior. The theoretical framework of cluster internationalization is a set of interrelated concepts and theories: the theory of economic growth and regional development; regional clusters' potential management, which takes into account the implications of meso-economic policy; theories of industrial development and business clusters. An interregional comparison of clusters' international communication is conducted in a manner which regards their internationalization models as specific sets of strategies. The general model of cluster internationalization was formed, which can be applied by public and commercial structures as well. The hypothesis of the research is that internationalization is an effective way of increasing the competitiveness of both enterprises within the cluster and the region as a whole. Unlike common approaches to regional strategizing, focused primarily on the rational use of internal resources, this article treats internationalization as a strategic resource for regional development itself. The results of this study can be a reference point for the elaboration of regional development strategies. Further direction of research is related to the enhancements of mechanisms which will help include SMEs from the macro-region's periphery into the cleantech cluster's structure. The positive experience of cluster interaction considered in the article on the example of the EU countries in modern conditions can be used to determine the directions and configurations of effective cooperation between Russia and friendly countries in the industrial sphere.
Ключевые слова: макрорегион, промышленный кластер чистых технологий, стратегия интернационализации, регионы ЕС, интеграционные объединения, метакластеры, трансграничное сотрудничество.
Keywords: macro-region, cleantech cluster, internationalization strategy, EU regions, integration unions, metacluster, cross-border cooperation.
Благодарности: Исследование выполнено за счет гранта Российского научного фонда № 22-2800050, https://rscf.ru/project/22-28-00050 в Южном федеральном университете.
Acknowledgments: The research was supported by a grant from the Russian Science Foundation № 22-2800050, https://rscf.ru/project/22-28-00050at Southern Federal University.
Introduction
In today's highly intensified and blurred scope of innovation, the importance of making scientific strategic decisions is increasing. This is especially true for individual parts of macro-regions, in the face of rapid digitalization. Within the boundaries of meso-level economic systems, strategic approaches to robust
resource management are becoming more common and in demand. The role of regions in the implementation of macro-regional plans and programs, including strategic ones, continues to strengthen. For the EU, which is composed of states different in resource potential, the economic and social transformations at the regional level are crucial. Especially when it comes to development based on innovation and digitalization, of which business clusters are active actors.
It is important to take into account that the empowering of territories in strategic planning leads to a situation where regions compete for the limited resources available in the economy. On the other hand, the presence of different sectoral strategies encourages competition between the strategies themselves with regard to their ability of securing resources [18].
In this context, the relevance of developing the clean technology sector is obvious, as a result of recent trends in global governance. In particular, the four UN Sustainable Development Goals explicitly refer to this sector of industry:
- Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all;
- Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy;
- Goal 11: Make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable;
- Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts [41].
All of this is especially true for the developing world. Urbanized developing countries, which have reached a higher level of national income, are now in dire need of green solutions. Attention has been focused on such emerging economies as Nigeria [1], Jordan [2], Peru [7], Columbia [3], Thailand [42] etc. All of these economies are seeking to achieve a keen competitive advantage for attracting modern green solutions. Since such solutions can so far be provided chiefly by the developed European business clusters, there is a natural demand to enhance international business connections using the potential of these clusters. On the other hand, the challenges induced by globalization processes determine the need of promoting major international business clusters in Europe [31]. It also has been noted that there is a need to take into account the processes which develop at both local and global levels [30].
Cluster internationalization is a form of strategic behavior. Therefore, it makes sense to see the development of international communication between clusters as an implementation of some set of their strategies. This will help to understand the choice of internationalization courses made by European cleantech clusters. This will also allow us to make some forecasts in this regard, to highlight potential risks, and to develop a general model of internationalization which could be implemented by public and commercial structures as well.
Clean technology is any process, product or service that reduces the negative effect of human activity on the environment. It is the cleantech business clusters of European regions that we have chosen as the objects of our research. The subject of the research are methods, models and management mechanisms they had employed for their internationalization strategies. In this paper, we conduct a comparative analysis of internationalization strategies chosen by the EU's cleantech clusters. In total, we consider eight major clusters from the following countries: Denmark, Germany, Austria, Romania, France, Czech Republic, Hungary and Spain. It is also to be noted that as cluster networks are becoming more relevant [5], we will pay attention in our research to active European cluster networks and metacluster organizations.
The novelty of the study consists in:
- singling out the macro-region as an important target of the internationalization of business clusters;
- identifying cross-border cooperation as a promising way of enhancing internationalization process, which can be encouraged by both public structures and cluster's management itself;
- highlighting public choice as an important source of internationalization risks of cleantech clusters;
- using the concept of integration unions for the classification of internationalization strategies of business clusters, as well as indicating the risks arising in these associations.
Researchers who had reviewed the scientific literature on this topic noted that the problem of internationalization of business clusters was not receiving sufficient attention [8]. Nevertheless, there are a certain amount of theories on the internationalization of business clusters.
Some authors understand internationalization as the ability of an organization to consistently sell products abroad, and in this case the measure of internationalization is the number of foreign markets where the organization is present [36]. It is noted that internationalization is a prerogative of large firms as possessors of high competence (above all, their ability of understanding the multicultural diversity of the world). The limited organizational resources (for instance, human capital) act as the main obstacle to the internationalization of small and medium-sized enterprises [14].
The internationalization of clusters was also considered by some economists as a way to increase the competitiveness of both cluster enterprises and the region as a whole: by creating stable linkages in trade, industry, science, finance and education [29]. Internationalization is the expanding into the global economy, in other words, the gradual allocation of resources worldwide [22].
Researchers note early internationalization of European firms, particularly startups, of which the vast majority planned to expand into foreign markets in their first year of operation [33]. For the so-called "born global" clusters first-year internalization is the cornerstone of their developmental strategy [5]. Among the motivations of this rapid, dynamic strategy are technological advances and the increasing homogeneity of consumer preferences in the face of globalization. The trend toward rapid internationalization is a distinctive feature of high-tech industries [13]. It has been noted that rapid internationalization strategies are spreading among Eastern and Central European countries, with the help of international networks. Such countries are characterized by a small domestic market, but high levels of human and social capital, which pushes startups to choose a fast internationalization strategy.
Some researchers have pointed out that firms form clusters to facilitate entry into foreign markets rather than to conduct marketing strategies at home [20]. Public sector support and the involvement of large trade institutions are crucial. Interestingly, according to these authors, those clusters have a competitive advantage that is inherent for economies with a strong market institutional environment. Good institutions act as disciplining forces, preparing clusters for operations on a global market scale. And clusters themselves have the most convenient access to institutions and public goods [39].
Other researchers have proposed a three-part structure of the internationalization process: 1) the initial stage (motivation); 2) internationalization per se (entry mode, cluster management style, network effects, spillover effects, and strategy); and 3) the post-internationalization stage (evolution) [8]. The most important component of internationalization is governance [16]. It has both formal and informal aspects — in the form of, for instance, business customs. Cluster institutions are the embodiment of governance in a crystallized form and one of the main factors for the success of internationalization. Other important factors are the ability to provide decent "network effects" [37], to absorb a large amount of new knowledge [38] and most importantly in the era of globalization, the possession of cross-cultural competence and cultural intelligence [19].
Methods
In this paper we will consider cluster internationalization as the establishment of stable cross-border communication (i.e. exchange of knowledge, experience and resources) in order to obtain marginal economic benefits, increase internal stability of the cluster and rationalize its business strategies. The internationalization strategy of a cluster, in our view, is the answer to the following questions:
- in what directions to expand cross-border communication?
- with what means will it be done?
- to what extent should the firm be involved in this process?
- how should the firm respond to the risks that will arise?
When considering an internationalization strategy of a business cluster, we first denote the technological sphere of the cluster, the year it was established and its geographical location. The strategies were considered using the data obtained from the clusters' official websites, their annual reports (if they are publicly available), as well as the strategies declared by the management on the European Cluster Collaboration Platform [17]. If a cluster consists in a cluster partnership or cluster network - its description and its own internationalization strategy (if any) is given. Further, we outline the directions for cross-border expansion of clusters both within the EU and globally (the directions are themselves indicated by the management in their formalized strategies). It is also important to mention any form of public-private partnership.
Then, we highlight the commonalities of all the clusters considered, or, on the contrary, identify differences that are of academic interest. Thus, we conduct a comparative analysis of clusters' strategies.
An Empirical Analysis of Internationalization Strategies of Clean Technology Clusters in European Regions: A Comparative Context
Denmark. The CLEAN cluster was founded in 2006 in Southern Denmark (S0nnerborg) [9]. The technological areas of the cluster are: mixture separation methods, solid waste recycling and plastic processing, chemistry, metallurgy, water treatment and water supply. Since clean technologies are the competitive advantage of the Danish economy and its most important political priority, internationalization of the cluster's activities is a natural direction of its development. At the same time, this strategy relies on the increased need for environmental solutions from large agglomerations and enterprises around the world, and Denmark itself is too small to provide the necessary economies of scale.
The partner countries of the cluster are Sweden, Finland, Iceland, the Netherlands, and Germany. A high degree of technological cooperation between Scandinavian economies (they are also members of the Nordic Solutions platform) can be noted. Within the international framework, the main targets of cooperation for this cluster are South Korea, India, China, Brazil, USA, also Israel and Singapore. Significant support for the expansion of activities outside the EU is provided by the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and its eight innovation centers. The cluster's management also notes the high role of international non-profit organizations, especially ICN (International Cleantech Network) [27]. Such agreements are a powerful tool for international cooperation, especially regarding SMEs, because for them transaction costs are significant.
Another cluster important for the Danish economy, Energy Cluster Denmark (Northern Jutland) was founded in 2020 [15] and was immediately positioned by the Danish Ministry of Energy as a national cluster for the entire energy sector: power generation, conversion and distribution, mechanical engineering, and cooling systems as well. As part of the European-wide blue energy project ELBE+ [18], this cluster plans to expand into the markets of the United States, Canada, Taiwan, South Korea and Japan.
It is a pan-European strategy which aims to quickly capture market share in a promising sector of the economy by improving the European value chain based on transparent cooperation between small, medium, large businesses and research institutes. In this case, the internationalization of the cluster is a part of European geopolitical strategies.
The ISED20 strategy is at the moment in the conceptualization phase, which consists of bringing Danish SMEs into contact with public actors in the U.S. and China. In general, the main directions of international cooperation of this cluster are: Brazil, Japan, Taiwan, USA, Norway; in the EU - Belgium, Germany, Spain, France, Sweden.
Germany. The Umweltcluster Bayern was founded in 2006 in Bavaria [40]. The technological areas of the cluster include: recycling; alternative energy production; air pollution control; resource efficiency; material flow management; water and wastewater treatment. This cluster is active in Columbia (Valle del Cauca), expanding and deepening the value chains in biomass recycling.
This project is financially supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. The Chamber of Industry and Commerce of Munich organizes ties with Morocco in order to increase scientific and technical cooperation between two countries. The cluster establishes close ties with Canada by participating in local trade fairs and signing memorandums with Canadian clusters. Within the European project "Interreg Danube" [28], the Umweltcluster Bayern cluster implements circular economy solutions in the Danubian states (Hungary, Romania). The management declares joint commercial projects with China, as well as with Colombia and Chile.
Austria. Green Tech Cluster Styria GmbH is an Austrian cleantech cluster founded in Styria in 2005 [25]. Activities of the cluster members range from water supply to the production of equipment for hydroelectric power plants.
Areas of internationalization of this cluster are as follows:
- Collaboration with Brazilian research centers and firms in order to exchange experience in the use of biogas;
- Study of the clean technology market in South Africa and establishment of business relations in the
region;
- Cross-cluster cooperation, especially with European clusters such as CLEAN and Basque Energy Cluster;
- Participation in the ICN cluster network in order to develop global value chains.
In general, the main directions of the cluster's expansion are: Canada, USA, China, South Africa, Brazil; in Europe: Denmark, Germany, Italy, Slovenia, France.
Czech Republic. The CREA Hydro&Energy cluster was founded in 2008 in Brno [12]. Technological fields of the cluster: ground transport, hydraulics, wastewater treatment, waste processing.
The cluster is represented in a metacluster structure - the National Cluster Association of the Czech Republic [35], which itself has a developed strategy of internationalization for both European and global levels. This association pays special attention to cross-border cooperation with Poland, Germany and Slovakia in such aspects as cybersecurity, smart cities, Industry 4.0 and Internet of Things. The Philippines, China and Vietnam are also priority markets for this cluster network.
CREA Hydro&Energy's primary internationalization route is the developing world, mostly low-income and lower middle-income economies: Iraq, the Philippines, Peru, Kyrgyzstan, Colombia. However, most of the current international projects are carried out within the European Union, through special initiatives of the European Commission (COSME, Interreg Europe) and the Visegrad Fund. Note that the macro-regional level (i.e., Central Europe) is of independent importance here.
Romania. Green Energy Romanian Innovative Biomass Cluster (Sfintu-Georghe, Transylvania) was founded in 2011 [24]. One of the most important goals of the cluster is to synchronize biomass production and utilization. Internationalization is a key element of the cluster's general strategy. Close cooperation with Hungary is carried out through a partnership with Cosmenerg 4i (Budapest), a cluster with 450 participants [11]. Cosmenerg 4i pursues an ambitious strategy of cooperation between Central Europe, the Middle East and ASEAN members through the development of common marketing, branding, market research and communication strategies. Taking the cluster's activities to such a high level would not have been possible without the help of the European Commission, as well as individual European governments through initiatives such as the EEA Financial Mechanism, Horizon 2020, Promobio, ADC, Ecrein+, TREC-Danube, etc. In general, we can note the high interest of the European government in the development of cleantech clusters in Southern and Central Europe: there is both a significant domestic demand of the Danube economies and a visible competitive advantage of Romania and Hungary in clean technologies.
Spain. Basque Energy Cluster was founded in 1996 in Bilbao [10]. The main technological areas of the cluster: production and distribution of energy, production of electric power distribution equipment. The internationalization strategy of the cluster is formulated in a rather unusual way: it spells out carefully the roles of each type of cluster member in promoting international activities. There is a certain "division of labor" within the cluster:
- Driver companies (large customers) stimulate demand, share business contacts, and open up international markets;
- Large firms lead in working groups (they can also create working groups themselves), create business alliances, and open doors to the global market for other cluster members;
- Small and medium-sized businesses participate actively in working groups;
- Government organizes international missions and contacts key agents within its network. Targets of recent missions of this cluster include the U.S., Thailand, Canada, and Sub-Saharan Africa.
In addition to the general internationalization strategy, this cluster has a special strategy for energy R&D, which is fully linked to the European projects financed by the European Commission (e.g. ELBE). In particular, one of the most important areas of R&D internationalization is the formation of a strong pan-European "blue energy" cluster.
France. The Hyrdreos cluster was founded in Grand Est (France) in 2010 [26]. This cluster participates in the France Water Team cluster network [21], which aims to create a common international brand in the water sector. The tasks of this cluster association fall into the following areas:
- information (providing information of good quality and supplying the latest international news in the water sector);
- skills (sharing experience between companies, as well as developing common approaches for assessing the current market situation);
- opportunities (distribution of know-hows, joint hosting of foreign delegations, joint visits to exhibitions, etc);
- financing (assistance with deciding on the instruments for attracting financial resources).
The cross-border cooperation initiative of this cluster is the Greater Green project [23], which brings together small and medium-sized firms of Greater Luxembourg. Here, cross-border cooperation is developing in a crystallized agglomeration, a macro-region that is united not so much by history as by existing infrastructure and geopolitics.
For this cluster, Bolivia, Tunisia, Canada and Peru are the main areas of internationalization; and within the EU borders, Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands.
Note that clusters can be classified by their structure: clusters with significant civil society representation (Energy Cluster Denmark), clusters with a significant share of research centers (Umweltcluster Bayer), clusters dominated by large organizations (Basque Energy Cluster) and clusters in which small and medium businesses (CLEAN) are the absolute majority.
Results of the study
The results of the comparative analysis of the internationalization strategies implemented by the clusters are summarized in Table 1.
To begin with, let us consider, relying on the data in Table 1, which countries were preferred by the above clusters as the targets of internationalization: both within the EU and within the global economy.
Table 1 - Internationalization strategies of major European cleantech clusters
[Composed by the authors using the results of the empirical analysis conducted above]
Cluster Cluster network participation European projects Internationalization: global course Internationalization: European course
CLEAN ICN Nordic Solutions South Korea, China, India, Brazil, USA, Israel, Singapore, Ukraine Sweden, Iceland, Finland, Netherlands, Germany, Greece
Energy Cluster Denmark Europe Leading Blue Energy ELBE, INN2POWER Brazil, Japan, Taiwan, USA, Norway, South Korea, Canada Belgium, Germany, Spain, France, Sweden
Umweltcluster Bayer Chemical Cluster Bavaria Interreg Danube Colombia, Morocco, Canada, China, Chile Hungary, Romania, France, Slovenia, Austria
Green Tech Cluster Styria ICN H2020 Canada, USA, China, South Africa, Brazil Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Slovenia
CREA Hydro&Energy Czech National Cluster Association COSME Go International Iraq, Philippines, Peru, Kyrgyzstan, Colombia, China, Vietnam Poland, Germany, Slovakia
Green Energy Biomass Cluster Global Clusters for Renewable Energy Cosmenerg 4i Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Israel, Jordan, Qatar, UAE, Moldova Austria, Germany, Hungary
Basque Energy Cluster Wind Europe ELBE Brazil, Morocco, Chile, Colombia, Mexico Austria, France, Sweden, Denmark, Finland
Hyrdreos France Water Team Greater Green Bolivia, Tunisia, Peru, Canada Belgium, Germany, Netherlands
The internationalization targets of the considered clusters at the EU level are illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1 - Main directions of cleantech clusters' expansion in the EU regions
[Authors' own illustration of the data from Table 1 (mapchart.net service was used to compose the map)]
The main target of intra-European internationalization for the largest cleantech clusters is Germany. This is due, firstly, to its convenient central position (both geographically and politically), secondly, to its society's demand for clean technologies (public choice), and thirdly, to the high level of its national income. Germany is followed by France and Sweden as the economies with also one of the highest technological and economic potential in the EU. In general, the main vector of cleantech clusters' internationalizing is Northern Europe.
We can distinguish two main vectors of internationalization on a global scale: the Americas and Southeast Asia (Figure 2).
Figure 2 - The directions of internationalization of the largest European cleantech clusters in the global economy
[Authors' own illustration of the data from Table 1 (mapchart.net service was used to compose the map)]
Of particular note are Brazil, China and Canada, followed by the United States and Colombia. Brazil and China are BRICS countries, and, in fact, due to their large populations, substantial resource endowments, and high levels of urbanization, they can provide stable demand for cleantech products. Serious environmental challenges also contribute to the special policy measures taken by the governments of these nations. North America is particularly in need of clean technology development based on its policy agenda and accumulated ecological footprint.
The problem of public choice emerges for a cleantech cluster at any stage of its internationalization. If a country's population suddenly changes its preferences and expectations about the environmental situation, this will either reduce or increase the demand for clean technologies, as well as redistribute the budget funds from some research centers to others. These factors can significantly increase the volatility of expected returns for a cluster. In this way, the largest clusters compete for the rather limited demand generated in the most dynamic economies.
All of the clusters reviewed have the so-called three-spiral structure: private business, research centers, and the public sector. It is this structure that provides sound prerequisites for internationalization of the cluster, turning it into a kind of small "state," where public structures open doors to new markets, scientific centers accumulate and systematize experience, and private organizations do most of the work of conquering new economic spaces. It is also clear from the results of the analysis that internationalization strategies can be splitted into several stages.
In the first stage, the cluster enters into the macro-regional market, that is, into its nearest environment, which is close in culture and economy. For example: cooperation between the clusters of Central Europe, between Romania and Moldova, between Austria and Hungary, the Scandinavian states, etc. Socio-cultural and geographical proximity ensures a significant reduction in the transaction costs of internationalization. In some cases, macro-regional cooperation is institutionalized (e.g., the participation of the Visegrad Fund in promoting cooperation in Central Europe). In these cases, the success of internationalization is also ensured by the support of supranational structures. An example of this type of cooperation is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 - The Interreg Danube project as an example of a successful macro-regional
internationalization strategy [28]
The second stage is the entry to the market of an integration union (EU, EAEU, ASEAN, etc.). Since all integration projects are not ideal and within them serious inter-country differences remain, this stage is characterized by a greater value of transaction costs. Supranational structures (e.g., the European Commission) have the political will and financial resources to bind cross-border clusters with common projects and strategies. Public structures can attract cluster associations to pursue their own large-scale economic objectives, and this creates additional demand for cleantech products and technologies.
The third stage - entering the world market - is the most costly stage, which is practically not feasible without government assistance and joining a network of clusters (metacluster structure). The cooperation of international clusters is justified economically even in the face of their competition, for they open up opportunities that were not available before. Cooperation here is all the more important because the transaction costs in the world economy are substantial even in the face of globalization: there is too much information, it is extremely diverse and not always correct, and there are still complications regarding the cultural diversity of the world (Fig. 4).
Figure 4 - Stages of internationalization by the level of economic integration
[Authors' own elaboration (Google Slides service was used to compose the scheme)]
So, the structure of transaction costs due to geographical, socio-cultural, political and other factors sets one of the perspectives of internationalization. The goal of public structures is to reduce transaction costs with informational and analytical support; the goal of clusters is to find a prospective association or to create one themselves. This vision is illustrated in Figure 4. Note that each stage is characterized by its own specific risks, respectively: country risks, macro-regional risks, risks of integration unions and global risks. Risks of each stage include all the risks from the previous one; for instance, global risks of a cluster cannot be properly assessed in isolation from the problems of integration unions, etc.
Another possible outlook on an internationalization strategy is the depth of cooperation between clusters. It is described by the degree of involvement of a cluster in the communication space where it is planning to expand. The minimum degree of involvement is participation in exhibitions and conferences in a given country. Then we can distinguish joint memorandums, formation of international missions, exchange of experience, joint scientific and commercial projects and, finally, joint branding and supply. As the depth of cooperation increases, so do the benefits and risks. In fact, that is the reason why internationalization is carried out in stages - to reduce systematic risks as they arise. It is obvious that the problem of information asymmetry becomes particularly acute here, both before and after the signing of contracts. Public structures and civil society intend to strengthen cooperation and reduce various risks. Thus, cooperation turns out to be composed of parallel structures: local governments on one line, commercial organizations on the other, and
research centers on the third. This structure itself reduces the uneven distribution of information, making cooperation truly organic.
Cross-border cooperation is another interesting aspect of the internationalization of European clean-tech clusters. The high level of urbanization and production factors mobility among the EU countries determine the demand for cooperation not just in historical macro-regions, but specifically in newer economic agglomerations. The center of one prominent agglomeration, for example, is Luxembourg. The cooperation of this kind further strengthens the integration between national economies, making use of the most important geographic, cultural and economic points of contact. Finding these points is an important task for public institutions in a globalized economy. Conclusion
Thus, according to the results of comparative analysis, we have found that:
- when building their internationalization strategy, business clusters rely heavily on macro-regional cooperation, using it as an important supporting element in their international communication and partnership;
- clusters vary considerably in their structure; the potential influence of specific entities within a cluster upon the success of its internationalization is a prospect for further research;
- it is very important to take the public choice of national economies into account, in order to properly assess the possible risks of expanding cluster activities worldwide;
- the internationalization strategy can also be conveniently analyzed in terms of the developmental stages of cluster - counterparties communication;
- cross-border cooperation and the creation of new economic agglomerations on subjects' borders within integration unions is a good policy for public structures to encourage cooperation between intercountry clusters.
Risks emerging in integration unions along with their impact on the internationalization strategy of clusters worth further research and analysis. Moreover, the structure of an integration association itself is capable of discovering the distribution of internationalization strategies among economic agents within the association. More research is needed on information asymmetry - not within a single cluster, but within a network of clusters, in order to identify weak points in cooperation development. The principal-agent problem is also related to information asymmetry, though in the domain of post-contract activities. The problem of state participation in the process of internationalization of the cluster is vital: is it sufficient for public structures to simply finance private projects or a more profound governance is necessary? In the last case, how to ensure the effectiveness of this coordination, especially in high-tech sectors of the economy?
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