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UDC 614.71 https://doi.org/10.32402/dovkil2019.01.051
|НТЕГРАЛЬН1 ПОКАЗНИКИ ЯК 1НСТРУМЕНТИ ОЦ1НКИ ЯКОСТ1 АТМОСФЕРНОГО ПОВ1ТРЯ
Турос О.1., Маремуха Т.П., Петросян А.А., Михша Л.1., Моргульова В.В.
INTEGRAL INDICATORS AS TOOLS FOR AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT
TUROS O., MAREMUKHA T., PETROSIAN A., MYKHINA L., MORHULOVA V. State Institution «O.M. Marzeiev Institute for Public Health, NAMSU», Kyiv
Keywords: air, integral indicator, AQI, PMi0, PM2.5.
ver 50 years, air pollution and its impact on human health are a concern for the World Health Organization (WHO). A large number of studies have demonstrated relations between air pollution and a verity of health effects. The results of these studies have confirmed that air pollution is a serious threat to public health. By reducing air pollution levels, countries can reduce the burden of disease from stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, and both chronic and acute respiratory diseases, including asthma.
As a consequence, it is vital to notify the public about the levels of air pollution and related health risks so that people can take measures to keep their health [1].
Many countries are working to make information about outdoor air quality as available to the public as information about the weather. A key tool in this effort is the Air Quality Index or AQI. It informs the public of the local level of ambient air pollution, and the potential health risk it would [2].
The AQI made its debut in 1968, when the National Air Pollution Control Administration undertook an initiative to develop an air quality index and to apply the methodology to Metropolitan Statistical Areas. The impetus was to draw public attention to the issue of air pollution and indirectly push responsible local public officials to take action to control sources of pollution and enhance air quality within their jurisdictions. The initial iteration of the air quality index used standardized ambient pollutant concentrations to yield individual pollutant indices. These indices were then weight-
ed and summed to form a single total air quality index. The overall methodology could use concentrations that are taken from ambient monitoring data or are predicted by means of a diffusion model. The concentrations were then converted into a standard statistical distribution with a preset mean and standard deviation [3].
The first air quality index was introduced The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) started to use an AQI in 1976 (the original name was Pollutant Standard Index - PSI) for use by States and local agencies on a voluntary basis. The aim was to create certain homogeneity among the 14 different indices used by more than 50 urban areas in USA and Canada at that time [2]. The Clean Air Act (the law that defines EPA's responsibilities for protecting and improving the nation's air quality), which was last amended in 1990, requires EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for widespread pollutants from numerous and diverse sources considered harmful to public health and environment. The Clean Air Act established two types of national air quality standards. Primary standards set limits to protect public health, including the health of «sensitive» populations such as asthmatics, children and elderly. Secondary standards set limits to protect public welfare, including protection against visibility impairment, damage to animals, crops, vegetation and buildings. The Clean Air Act requires periodic reviews of the science upon which the standards are based and the standards themselves. EPA AQI is
1НТЕГРАЛЬН1 ПОКАЗНИКИ ЯК 1НСТРУМЕНТИ ОЦ1НКИ ЯКОСТ1 АТМОСФЕРНОГО ПОВ1ТРЯ Турос О.1., Маремуха Т.П., Петросян А.А., Михна Л.1., Моргульова В.В.
ДУ «1нститут громадського здоров'я ¡м. О.М. Марзеева НАМН Укра/ни», м. Ки)'в
Мета роботи - проанал1зувати ¡нтегральн1 показники оц1нки якост атмосферного повтря та п1дходи до визначення '¡ндексу якост повтря на прикладi PM10 та PM25. Матер'али та методи. Визначено рiвнi 1ндексу якост повтря на основi 24-годинних концентра^й PM10 та PM25 з застосуванням методик, рекомендованих Управлiнням з охорони довклля США та бвропейською Аген^ею Довклля 6С.
Для дослдження використовувалися концент-рацИ' PM10 та PM25, що були отриманi протя-гом 10.2017-11.20l8 року на стацюнарному
пунктI мон/торингу, якии розм/щении за адресою: м. Ки)'в, вул. Попудренка, 50. Результати. Виявлено, що не ¡снуе ун1ф1кова-ного ¡нтегрального показника для оц1нки якост\ повтря, але у бльшост кра)'н св'пу пр1ори-тетним е використання 1ндексу якост повтря (А01). Було показано, що А01 е ¡нструментом для ¡нформування громадськост щодо якост\ атмосферного повтря та пов 'язаного з цим ризиком для здоров 'я населення. Встановлено, що р\вн\ А01 за окремим показником, у тому числ\ РМ10 та РМ2 5, можуть суттево вщр1знятися залежно вд використаного шдходу визначення ¡ндексу у зв'язку з вар1абельнютю д1апазон1в концентрами забруднюючих речовин, що вдповдають певн1И категорИ ¡ндексу.
Ключовi слова: атмосферне повтря, iнтегральний показник, №1, РМ10, РМ2 5.
© Турос О.1., Маремуха Т.П., Петросян А.А., Михша Л.1., Моргульова В.В. СТАТТЯ, 2019.
51 Environment & Health № 1 2019
INTEGRAL INDICATORS AS TOOLS FOR AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT Turos O., Maremukha T., Petrosian A., Mykhina L., Morhulova V.
State Institution «O.M. Marzieiev Institute for Public Health, NAMSU», Kyiv
The objective of this work was to analyze the integral indicators of the air quality assessment and approaches to the definition of the AQI for
example PM10, PM2,5.
Materials and methods. The levels of the Air
Quality Index are determined based on 24-hour concentrations of PM10 and PM2 5, using methods recommended by the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the European Environment Agency of the European Union. The study used concentrations PM10 and Keywords: air, integral indicator, AQI, РМ10, РМ25.
PM25, which were received during 10.201711.2018 at the fixed monitoring station, located at the address: 50, Popudrenko str., Kyiv. Results. There is no unified integrated indicator for air quality assessment, but in most countries the use of the Air Quality Index is a priority. AQI is a tool for informing the public about the quality of atmospheric air and the associated risks to the health of the population. The AQI levels for a specific pollutant, including PM10and PM2 5, may vary significantly depending on the indexing approach used.
This is due to the variability in the pollutants' concentration ranges that correspond to a respective category of the index.
an index for reporting daily air quality. It tells how clean or polluted air is, and what associated health effects might be a concern for you. The AQI focuses on health effects you may experience within a few hours or days after breathing polluted air. EPA has set NAAQS for five main common pollutants: carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), оzone (O3), particulate matter (PM1 0 and PM2 5) and sulphur dioxide (SO2). Six categories corresponding to different level of health concerns (and symbolized by different colors) are considered [4, 7].
Canadian government, through the Meteorological Service of Environment Canada, provides an AQI computed in the same way as EPA's one, but considering 4 categories only. Recently, a new Air Quality Health Index (AQHI) has been added to AQI. When developing the AQHI, Health Canada's original analysis of health effects included five major air pollutants: PM10 and PM25, O2 and NO2, as well SO2 and Co. The latter two pollutants provided little information in predicting health effects and were removed from the AQHI formulation. The AQHI is based on the relative risks of a combination of common air pollutants and is measured on a scale ranging from 1 to 10. The AQHI values are also grouped into 4 health risk categories helping to easily and quickly identify the actual level of risk as Low Health Risk (1-3), Moderate Health Risk (4-6), High Health Risk (7-10), or Very High Health Risk (10+) [5].
In a review of the UK Air Quality Index, Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants (COMEAP) developed and recommended a Daily Air Quality Index (DAQI) for the purpose of providing short-
term health advise to the public regarding the air quality around them and possible recommendations such people can take. Following the recommendations from COMEAP, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) together with responsible administrations implemented this index from January 2012. This Index was later updated with minor changes through Defra's update on the implementation of DAQI in April 2013 to conform with the EU limit values of pollutant concentrations. The update also emphasised that data rounding off should always be performed at the end of calculations before communicating results to avoid errors [2]. DAQI is defined on a scale of 1 to 10 with colour coding and categorised into four bands of Low (1-3), Moderate (46), High (7-9) and Very High (10). COMEAP report recommended the removal of CO from the AQI and the inclusion of PM25. Currently the DAQI uses the pollutants of O3, NO2, SO2, PM25 and PM10 in calculation of the index. The Automatic Urban and Rural Network (AURN) measures these pollutant concentrations in near real-time and their values used in calculation of the index. The overall index is given by the highest pollutant concentration of the considered pollutants. To allow prediction of elevated air pollution episodes in real-time, DAQI uses trigger values to predict concentrations of pollutants [6].
The ATMO Index is the air quality index used in major cities in France that have a population of more than 100,000 inhabitants. The index is represented by a giraffe and is based on a scale of 1 to 10 ranging from very good to
very bad and with three coloured bands of Green (1-4), Orange (57) and Red (8-10). ATMO Index considers the pollutants of SO2, NO2, O3, PM25 and PM10. Subindices are calculated for the four pollutant concentrations and the final aggregated index is the highest sub index calculated from the pollutant concentrations. Each pollutant has defined limit values for the scale ranges upon which pollutant concentrations are compared to determine the pollutant sub index [7].
At European level, the last air quality directives came into force in June 2008 and will be transposed into national legislation by June 2010 (Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe). This directive lays down measures aiming at, among others, «assessing the ambient air quality in Member States on the basis of common methods and criteria». Actually this directive has not been applied yet, and each country follows (when it is done) its own method. The European Environment Agency (EEA) is the agency of the European Union (EU), that came into force in late 1993, whose task is to provide sound, independent information on the environment; it represents a major information source for who is involved in developing, adopting, implementing and evaluating environmental policies, and also for the general public [8].
The Common Air Quality Index (CAQI) is an air quality index used in Europe. It was developed in the course of the CITEAIR project [9] and has been around since 2006. The index was made for the purpose of easily comparing the air
quality in European cities in realtime. At the same time the CAQI received an update. Since the CAQI was launched the air quality directives have been revised and a limit value for PM25 was added in the new, so called, Directive 2008/50/EC [8]. PM25 is a health relevant and regulated parameter so it had to be included in the CAQI calculation [9].
The CAQI is defined in both hourly and daily versions, and separately near roads (a «road-side» or «traffic» index) or away from roads (a «background» index). As of 2012, the CAQI had two mandatory components for the roadside index, NO2 and PM10, and three mandatory components for the background index, NO2, PM 10 and O3. It also included optional pollutants PM25, CO and SO2. A «sub-index» is calculated for each of the mandatory (and optional if available) components. The CAQI is defined as the sub-index that represents the worst quality among those components [2, 9]. The CAQI has a scale from 1 to 100 with lower rankings representing better air quality. Some of the higher class borders are linked to concentrations mentioned in the EU air quality directives (Directive 2008/50/EC) [8]. The large range of the scale assures changes, even at the lower end of the scale. Three different indices have been developed to enable the comparison of three different time scale: an hourly index; a daily index; an annual index.
In 2016, Ricardo Energy and the Environment prepared a final report for the Directorate-General The European Commission and presented the developed prototype AQI (EU-AQI). It harmonises existing Air Quality Indices for key air pollutants. Twenty air quality indices were identified, reviewed and assessed, plus the existing CAQI for Europe during the development of the AQI prototype. The review included 14 indices used in EU Member States, and seven from non-EU countries. The indices selected covered a mixture of region types: some were specific to a Member State or other country while others were specific to a region, state or city [10].
The main target group for an AQI is identified as ordinary citizens who are concerned about air pollution and its possible effects on their health. An EU AQI must be easy to use, clear, and based on well-informed health advice, based in turn on robust data. The four major pollutants to be includ-
ririGHA ATMOCOEPHOrO nOBITPfl =
ed are: NO2, ozone O3, particulate matter as PM10 and as PM25, SO2 is to be included as an optional pollutant where it is monitored and relevant. The AQI prototype database is populated using automated data flows for UTD measurement data and MACC AQ forecast data. In the prototype system every monitoring location has to present values for each of the four critical pollutants. Where values are missing because the pollutant is not measured or the equipment is off-line then the missing data are populated from the modelled (forecast) MACC data. This
enables the most complete and up-to-date geographical picture of European AQI to be presented to the public end users of the system. In November 2017, the European Environment Agency announced the EU-AQI and started encouraging its use on websites and for other ways of informing the public about air quality. EU-AQI meant to complement existing national air quality indices, not replace them.
The air pollution index (API) is used to assess and analyze the atmospheric air pollution in Ukraine. API is used for compara-
Table 1
Pollutants and category grid for US EPA AQI
Index Values AQI Categories Particulate Matter (pg/m3)
PM10 (24-hour) PM2.5 (24-hour)
Up to 50 Good 0-54 0-12.0
51-100 Moderate 55-154 12.1-35.4
101-150 Unhealthy for sensitive groups 155-254 35.5-55.4
151-200 Unhealthy 255-354 55.5-150.4
201-300 Very unhealthy 355-424 150.5-250.4
301-500 Hazardous 425-604 250.5-500.4
Table 2
Pollutants and category grid for EU AQI
AQI Categories Particulate Matter (pg/m3)
PM10 (24-hour) PM2.5 (24-hour)
Very Good 0-20 0-10
Good 21-35 11-20
Moderate 36-50 21-25
Bad 51-100 25-50
Very Bad >100 >50
Figure 1
US EPA AQI categories for concentration PM10 (a) and PM25 (b) during the study period a b 3%
16% - Good
84% - Good 16% - Moderate
16%
73% - Moderate
9% - Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups
3% - Unhealthy
tive evaluation pollution of certain areas, cities with the establishment of their priority on the level of pollution and trends of pollution. This indicator is relative and its value depends on the concentration of the substance in the analyzed point, the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) and the amount of substances that pollute the atmosphere. API calculation is based on the principle that the MPC at all harmful substances are characterized by the same effect on humans, and with further increase of concentration the degree of their harmfulness increases with different speed, depending on the hazard class of the substance. Considered that when API <1 air quality by separate pollutant meets sanitary and hygienic requirements [11].
Air Quality Index is not used as an official indicator of air quality in Ukraine. The most significant issues preventing scientists from development of the AQI in our country are: lack of continuous monitoring data on atmospheric air pollution with 1-hour or daily averaging periods; uneven distribution of monitoring sites; no monitoring for PM10 and PM25, as well as, absence of the official national guidelines for assessing safety of these pollutants; poor access to the most recent monitoring data.
The exposure to PM can have a detrimental health effect. Particle pollution is linked to a number of health problems, including coughing, wheezing, reduced lung function, asthma attacks, heart attacks and strokes. The exposure to PM is suspected of harming pregnant women and unborn children. PM can cause
oxidative stress, leading to inflammation. Other effects on pregnancy include endocrine disruption and impaired oxygen transport to the placenta, leading to a lower birth weight, congenital disabilities (birth defects), premature delivery, or even premature death. There is a close, quantitative relationship between exposure to high concentrations of PM10 and PM25 and increased mortality or morbidity, both daily and over time. Conversely, when concentrations of small and fine particulates are reduced, related mortality will also go down [1]. According to the WHO ambient air pollution in both cities and rural areas was estimated to cause 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide per year in 2016. This mortality is due to exposure to PM25, which cause cardiovascular and respiratory disease, and cancers.
The objective of this work was analyze the integral indicators of the air quality assessment and approaches to the definition of the AQI for example PM10, PM25.
Materials and methods. To calculate the AQI index we used the concentration data from the stationary monitoring station of PM10 and PM25 (based at the SI «O.M. Marzeiev Institute for public health» NAMSU) located in Kyiv, Popudrenko 50 str. Sampling location meets the requirement of representativeness of the measurement point(s): monitoring station is located far from the local sources of pollution (including the close proximity to carriageway) and in the place without aerodynamic perturbation, which may be present in the near-wall region, etc. Instrumental measurements
Figure 2
EU-AQI categories for concentration PM10 (c) and PM25 (d)
during the study period
Table 3
Comparison of PM10 and PM2 5 limits set by WHO, EEA, EPA
Pollutant Averaging period WHO limits EEA(EU) limits EPA(US) limits
PM10 24-hour 50 Mg/m3 50 Mg/m3 150 Mg/m3
annual 20 Mg/m3 40 Mg/m3 -
PM2.5 24-hour 25 Mg/m3 - 35 Mg/m3
annual 10 Mg/m3 25 Mg/m3 15 Mg/m3
of the concentration levels of PM2 5 i PM10 in ambient air were done using the APDA-371 (HORI-BA) analyzer which automatically measures airborne particulate concentration levels (in milligrams or micrograms per cubic meter), using the industry-proven principle of beta ray attenuation. Each hour, a small carbon-14 element emits a constant source of high-energy electrons (known as beta rays) through a spot of clean filter tape. These beta rays are detected and counted by a sensitive scintillation detector to determine a zero reading. Then APDA-371 automatically advances this spot of tape to the sample nozzle, where a vacuum pump then pulls a measured and controlled amount of dust-loaded air (standard - 16,7 l/min) through the filter tape. Hourly this dirty spot is placed back between the beta source and the detector thereby causing an attenuation of the beta ray signal which is used to determine the mass of the particulate matter on the filter tape. Standard measurement range of APDA-371 is 0-1.000 mg/m3 (0-1000 Mg/m3). Measurement was conducted at the height of 2 m from the horizontal roof surface of the monitoring station using the vertical sampler with the protection from atmospheric precipitations. Stationary monitoring station provide the automatic continuous measurement of PM10 and PM2 5 concentration during 24-hour [12].
Duration of the measurements is one year from November 1, 2017 till October 31, 2018. The statistical processing of the results was analyzed using STATISTICS software. We computed AQI based on daily levels of PM10 and PM25 and we used the AQI tool provided by the Environmental Protection Agency and the European Environment Agency of the European Union [4, 9].
Results. The health risk associated with various levels of ambient PM10 and PM2 5 was categorized as per the specifications of US EPA and Europe (tables 1, 2).
A total of 335 daily PM10 and 332 daily PM25 were collected over a period of November 1-st 2017 through October 31-st 2018.
Based on figure 1 (a), in terms of PM10, US EPA AQI was less than standard limit (AQI<100) in 100% of cases of which 16% and 84% were in good and moderate quality. The US EPA AQI for PM25 there were 16% days of good air quality, 73% days of moderate air quality,
9% days of unhealthy air quality for sensitive groups, 3% days of unhealthy air quality during the entire study period (figure 1 b).
EU-AQI was less than standard limit (AQI<50) in 78,5% of cases in terms of PM10, of which 22% and 39% were in very good and good quality, 17,5% was in moderate quality. In addition, in 21,5% of cases, the concentration of PM10 was higher than standard limit EU-AQI, of which 20% and 1,5% of cases were in bad and very bad quality (figure 2c). Meanwhile, based on figure 2 d, in terms of PM2 5 EU-AQi was less than standard limit in 71%, of cases of which 11,5% and 46% were in very good and good quality, 13,5% was in moderate quality. In 26% and 3% of cases EU-AQI for PM2.5 were in bad and very bad quality.
The findings of the study reveal a significant difference between the AQIs that were calculated using two different approaches proposed by the US EPA and EEA EU. This is explained by the fact that the AQI categories are developed taking into account existing air quality standards and levels of their accidences. In most of the cases, the integral indicator is determined based on the level of air pollution formed by the substance that is responsible for the highest accidences of the air quality standards.
Air quality in the United States of America must comply with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) established by the EPA [13]. European Union countries are guided by the limit values of pollutants as set out in Directive 2008/50/EC «On ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe» [8]. It should be noted, that when setting the limits of the AQI category for PM10 and PM2.5 European Union also consider concentrations limit recommended by WHO. As shown in table 3 EEA and WHO sets tougher standards for PM10and PM2.5than EPA [1, 8, 13].
Conclusions. There is no unified integrated indicator for air quality assessment, but in most countries the use of the Air Quality Index is a priority. AQI is a tool for informing the public about the quality of atmospheric air and the associated risks to the health of the population. The AQI levels for a specific pollutant, including PM10 and PM2.5, may vary significantly depending on the indexing approach used. This is due to the variability in the pollutants' concentration ranges that correspond to a respective category of the index.
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Hagrnwna go pegaKW 21.11.2018
