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THE CAUCASUS & GLOBALIZATION
Polina ZETI
Ph.D. (Political Science), Junior Fellow at the Department of Political Science and Conflict Management, Institute of Socioeconomic and Humanitarian Studies,
Southern Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences (Rostov-on-Don, the Russian Federation).
Elena ZHIRUKHINA
Ph.D. Candidate,
Intern Researcher at the Laboratory of North Caucasian Affairs, Institute of Socioeconomic and Humanitarian Studies,
Southern Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences (Rostov-on-Don, the Russian Federation).
INFORMATION OPPOSITION TO EXTREMISM AS A WAY TO REDUCE TENSION IN THE NORTHERN CAUCASUS
Abstract
Russia's southern regions have been the regular targets of extremism and terrorism for more than one decade now, which is hampering the development of the region's economic potential and the overall integration processes. The need to lower the extremely high level of the region's conflict potential, which is partially manifested in the activity of terrorist sabotage groups, is prompting reconsideration of the state strategy to combat extremism and terrorism. The forceful approach, which consists of physical elimination and criminal persecution of terrorists, is being supplemented by active work with civil society and in particular with representatives of the risk group and individuals who are already involved in the activity of extremist communities. Preventive campaigns aimed at
changing the population's awareness, as well as programs that assist former terrorists to adapt to a peaceful life are gradually forming the basis of a new comprehensive approach to reduce tension in general by encouraging the government and extremist groups to renounce their aggressive ideology. An intelligent information policy aimed at reducing tension and conflict potential in society and promulgating a positive image of contemporary youth should be one of the key mechanisms in opposing extremism. Since society's value system cannot be changed overnight, preventive initiatives take a while to bear fruit, although they have the ability to gradually penetrate to deeper levels of consciousness, which means they can form a basis for stable development.
Introduction
In recent decades, the South of Russia has been a region of increased tension where various types of conflicts (from ethnic to secessionist) have been manifested. However, the activity of terrorist sabotage groups conducting an ongoing war with the state presents the greatest danger. It goes without saying that Russia is not among the three top world leaders in terms of intrastate terrorist tension—those places are held by Afghanistan, Iraq, and Pakistan, where 3,346, 2,687, and 1,332 terrorist acts were committed in 2010, respectively.1 Nevertheless, there is a permanently high threat to the lives and health of the population in the North Caucasian republics and to national security as a whole, since terrorist acts are also carried out far beyond the borders of the North Caucasian Federal District (NCFD). In 2010, 974 terrorist acts of sabotage were committed.2 This means the region can be qualified as an extremely dangerous territory in accordance with the international security index.3 Despite the fact that in 2011 fewer violent acts took place in the Northern Caucasus—around 700, rebel groups are still active and not only threaten the development potential of the region, but also the very existence of the local population. It is no secret that North Caucasian terrorist sabotage groups cover a large part of their expenses by engaging in criminal activity, that is, they are mainly self-financed and recruit local residents, particularly young people, into their ranks. So we think the possibility of using the extensive potential of information technology to reduce the popularity of extremist ideology and prevent local residents from being drawn into rebel groups to be an important area of research.
What Does "Extremism" Mean?
First, we must define extremism. There is no generally accepted definition of "extremism," it depends on the sociopolitical conditions and is specified in correspondence with them. In Russia, "extremism" is defined legislatively and comprises any act aimed at bringing about a forcible change in the foundations of the constitutional system, the abasement of national dignity, the propaganda and public show of Nazi attributes, the exercise of terrorist activity, and so on.4 Extremism primarily poses a threat to Russian statehood and its values in their constitutionally enforced form. Engaging in extremist activity is a crime that is prosecuted in accordance with the Russian Federation Criminal Code. It should also be noted that international lawyers are increasingly using the term "violent extremism," which is an excessive form of extremism that employs terrorism as a way to achieve its aims. In this article, we will use the term "terrorism," which is more traditional for the Russian legal sphere.
The Shanghai Convention on Combating Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism sets forth an approach that is closest to the Russian definition. Extremism is defined as an act aimed at seizing or keeping power through the use of violence or changing violently the constitutional regime of a State, as well as a violent encroachment upon public security, including organization, for the above purposes, of illegal armed formations and participation in them.5
1 See: U.S. State Department National Antiterrorist Center Database (The Worldwide Incident Tracking System— WITS).
2 Database of violent incidents drawn up within the framework of a project called Terrorism in the South of Russia Geographic Information System.
3 See: MAPLECROFT, available at [http://maplecroft.com/about/news/terrorism_index_2011.html].
4 See: Federal Law No. 114-FZ On the Counteraction of Extremist Activity of 25 July, 2002 (with amendments of 27 July, 2006, 10 May, and 24 July, 2007, and 29 April, 2008), Art 1, see English translation at [http:// www.legislationline.org/documents/id/4368].
5 See: The Shanghai Convention on Combating Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism, 15 June, 2001, Art 1, available at [http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher,ASIA,,,49f5d9f92,0.html].
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European international legal documents also recognize extremism as a threat to the constitutional system, however the accent in placed on stability and security of social development. Resolution 1344 (2003) of the Council of Europe says that extremism, whatever its nature, is a form of political activity that overtly or covertly rejects the principles of parliamentary democracy, and very often bases its ideology and its political practices and conduct on intolerance, exclusion, xenophobia, anti-Semitism and ultra-nationalism.6 This phenomenon is clarified by exposing threats to stable social development within the framework of democratic regimes.
■ First, some extremist movements seek justification for their actions in religion. The danger of this current trend is twofold: on the one hand it fosters intolerance, religious fanaticism and fundamentalism, and on the other it leads to the isolation of entire religious communities for the sake of individuals who abuse the universal values of religion.
■ Second, it is both a direct threat because it jeopardizes the democratic constitutional order and freedoms, and an indirect threat because it can distort political life. Traditional political parties may be tempted to adopt the stance and the demagogic discourse specific to extremist parties in order to counter their increasing electoral popularity.
Contemporary states see the main danger of extremism in its denial of the basic values and interaction rules that exist among the structural elements of the present political power system, regardless of the circumstances that compel a social group to resort to radical measures.
Extremism demonstrates the main symptoms of divergence from normal social development by engaging in violence or aggressive behavior toward certain groups of the population. The most active extremism may be manifested in a situation where the people have no trust in state power or consider the way it governs to be ineffective. Active extremism also spreads the belief in its impunity, which is very characteristic of the Northern Caucasus. Therefore, it is very important to cultivate positive social and cultural values at all levels of social life.
The Specifics of Extremism and Terrorism in the Northern Caucasus
In the Northern Caucasus per se, the situation is the most intense in Daghestan, Chechnia, Kabardino-Balkaria, and Ingushetia, whereby Karachaevo-Cherkessia, which was a center for spreading Salafism at the beginning of the 1990s, is a new potential bed of tension. On the whole, small, but frequent violent acts are characteristic of the North Caucasian republics: armed clashes, bombings, and gunfire aimed primarily against state representatives—employees of the defense and security departments and administrative structures. Fighters attack administrative buildings, private vehicles, and households. In 2010-2011, 453 defense and security employees and 53 government representatives were killed.7 More than 350 peaceful citizens were also killed, although these are usually incidental casualties that occur during attacks on state representatives.
Tension continues to rise in Daghestan. The number of violent acts in 2011 (not counting coun-terterrorist operations) was higher than the same indices for 2010 (369 and 399, respectively).8 The number of armed clashes has doubled, exceeding the same indices in Chechnia, for which armed
6 See: Resolution 1344 (2003) Threat Posed to Democracy by Extremist Parties and Movements in Europe, available at[http://assembly.coe.int/main.asp?Link=/documents/adoptedtext/ta03/eres 1344.htm].
7 See: Terrorism in the South of Russia Geographic Information System.
8 Ibidem.
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clashes have become characteristic in recent years. However, the rebel groups that employees of the law-enforcement bodies encounter when carrying out investigative measures in the territory of Daghestan are not that large and consist of 2-10 people. In 2010, only two instances of major armed clashes were registered, the number of militants in one of which topped 40 people. In 2011-2012, military aviation is being used more frequently to deal with rebel groups, especially in the mountain regions where access is limited, and joint operations are being launched to eliminate fighters in border areas. This makes it possible to disable groups of terrorists in a specific area and prevent them from disappearing across the border. The Chechen and Daghestani law-enforcement structures joined forces in a major operation in which 20 fighters were eliminated on the border of the Nozhai-Yurt District of Chechnia and the Kazbek District of Daghestan (13-17 February, 2012).
The use of explosives is extremely widespread and the number of bombings is 2-3-fold higher in Daghestan than in other republics of the Northern Caucasus. Nevertheless, in 2011, terrorists began using firearms and cold weapons more frequently than explosives to carry out attacks. This is because laying bombs and working with explosives require additional skills, while firearms are more available in the republic. What is more, due to the increased security measures, transportation vehicles and suspicious individuals are monitored more closely, whereby the militants put up active resistance using firearms. On the whole, the level of attacks remains extremely high compared with other republics. Among the clergy, the imams of mosques who oppose the spread of radical Islamic trends and theology teachers are the main targets, while in the Kabardino-Balkar Republic attacks are carried out on the representatives of all religious confessions. There has also been an increase in the number of victims among such groups of the population as businessmen (particularly the owners of food stores, bars, and hotels), folk healers who practice non-traditional medicine, and fortune-tellers. According to the official statements of extremists, these people are attacked because of their "sinful" activity. However, extremists may be carrying out this criminal activity as a way to finance themselves. As for attacks on trade centers, food stores, and bars, bombs are usually laid so that the building and merchandise are not severely damaged (in the entrance for example), so are more of a scare tactic for the purpose of blackmail. However, the increasing number of murders of hunters and gamekeepers shows that militants and their bases are spreading to the wooded areas of the republic.
On the whole, there was a decrease in tension in Chechnia in 2011. However, the number of major armed clashes remains high. They usually occur as the result of investigative measures or when checking information on the whereabouts of gangs received from local residents or previously detained militants. There are also planned operations, for example, the attack on the village of Tsentoroi (Khosi-Yurt in the Kurchaloy District of the Chechen Republic). A group of 30 fighters was found there, 12 of whom were killed. Six police employees were killed and 18 wounded. Seven locals were also injured.
The situation in the Kabardino-Balkar Republic has remained tense over the past two years with a slight drop in violence in 2011. The number of bombings (90 in 2010 and 24 in 2011) has decreased.9 In so doing, explosives are mainly used for targeted attacks on employees of the defense and security structures and government representatives (planting a bomb under a personal vehicle or blowing up private households). Militants are blowing themselves up more frequently because they do not know enough about security measures and how to handle explosives (they make and keep self-made bombs at home).
Ingushetia is the only North Caucasian republic that has shown a sharp drop in tension in the last year (202 in 2010 and 108 in 2011),10 which largely happened owing to the increase in security measures. A significant event was the operation on 28 March, 2011 to destroy a militant camp where suicide bombers were being trained. During air and land operations, 17 rebels were killed.
9 Ibidem.
10 Ibidem.
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On the whole, religious extremism, which is clearly expressed in the inter-confessional conflict between Salafism and Sufism, and political extremism are characteristic of the Northern Caucasus. What is more, they are united by a common goal—erosion of the social structure; however, religious extremists strive to change the value system and interaction rules within Caucasian society, while political extremists are waging a struggle against state power with the prospect of withdrawing the North Caucasian republics from the federation. Imarat Kavkaz (the Caucasus Emirate), which operates in Russian territory and is internationally recognized as a terrorist organization, can be called an embodiment of North Caucasian terrorism. In his official statements, its leader supports the protest movement in Russia against the ruling party and existing regime. For example, on the eve of the presidential election, he insistently discouraged voters from going to the polls. All the same, despite the increased security measures, the extremists managed to open fire on a polling station in the village of Oktyabrskoye in Daghestan (on 4 March, 2012). State representatives were declared to be the target of the attack, while victims among members of the population who express their disapproval of the ruling regime were to be avoided.11 However, these promises are unlikely to protect citizens from the possibility of another large-scale terrorist act like the explosion at Domodedovo Airport in January 2011, which killed 37 people and wounded another 173, or the double terrorist act in Makhachkala in September 2011, during which 61 people were wounded.
The local population is tired of being in a constant state of war, which is causing a rise in protest moods and non-acceptance of the tense situation. The many-thousand meetings against the spread of terrorism and extremism in Ingushetia (Malgobek, Karabulak, and Orjonikidzevskaia in October 2010) are a good illustration of this. Nevertheless, the local population continues to join illegal armed groups of extremists. What is more, the Northern Caucasus is attracting radically thinking elements from neighboring states, particularly from the Central Asian countries. For example, in 2011, two militants, citizens of Kazakhstan, were killed in Daghestan and eight were arrested. Why does this happen? Is this a manifestation of protest moods against the specifics of state governance in the Northern Caucasus or a way for criminal groups who use the ideology of jihad to legitimize blackmail and extortion in order to earn money? We can only presume that the authority of the power structures in the republics is indeed not high. Due to the extreme need to resolve security problems, the government often takes severe steps which can lead to unlawful action on the part of the defense and security structures. So the situation in the Northern Caucasus is exacerbated by kidnappings relating to the illegal arrests of gang members. Arrests and investigation measures are not carried out in compliance with the rules: the relatives of those arrested are not told the reason for the arrest or where their family members are being held, and the law-enforcement agencies often deny that any arrest has taken place at all. As a rule, suspects are kidnapped from their own homes or place of work by a group of people wearing masks and driving cars without license plates; the witnesses of such "arrests" are relatives, neighbors, and colleagues. Such kidnappings are most frequent in Chechnia, particularly in its central districts. According to human rights organizations, more than 2,000 people have been kidnapped in recent years. Around 1,500 people have disappeared in Chechen territory. Kidnappings also occur in Ingushetia and Daghestan. The phenomenon has become so widespread that residents are ready to come out into the streets, confront the police, and openly declare the inefficient investigation of the disappearance of their relatives and acquaintances. At the end of March 2011, an unsanctioned spontaneous meeting against the disappearance of a resident of the village of Plievo was held in Nazran. The demonstrators blocked traffic on one of the central streets and clashed with the police (10 people were arrested).12 In November of the same year, a meeting was held in Makhachkala under the slogan of "Muslims against
11 See: "Umarov prikazal boevikam bolshe ne ubivat mirnykh grazhdan," available at [http://www.newsland.ru/ news/detail/id/881900/].
12 See: "Evkurov raskritikoval nesanktsionirovannyy miting v Nazrani: propavshiy chelovek—ne povod vystupat," available at [http://newsru.com/russia/24mar2011/evkurov.html].
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torture and tyranny of the law-enforcement agencies."13 The three thousand people who gathered on the central square demanded respect and protection of human rights on the part of the law-enforcement structures, as well as more active investigation of the disappearance of the members of their families. So society is energetically reacting to the situation and the methods being used by the competent structures to resolve it.
Information Opposition to Extremism
The global spread of extremism and of terrorism as its radical manifestation constantly provokes a response from states and civil society. The tough policy of governments toward people involved at different levels in illegal activity of this sort is drawing attention to extremists and advertizing their behavior, thus intensifying the problem. Moreover, extremism is becoming popular among young people, who have become accustomed to violence. Around 30% of young people participating in the activity of rebel gangs are under the age of 25, while another 50% of rebels are no older than 35.14 Young people are brainwashed by the extremist material posted on the Internet and the ideological support rendered to interested individuals. So clamping down on manifestations of extremism and the spread of its ideology is one of the state's most important tasks. Although extremism is traditionally opposed by using force (direct elimination and criminal persecution of terrorists), in an information society, physically destroying rebels is no longer enough. Each terrorist killed is replaced by others from among their sympathizers. So forceful methods must be supplemented by preventive campaigns and adaptation programs as a way to reduce tension and encourage the government and extremist groups to gradually renounce their aggressive ideology. The aim of such programs is to reintegrate members of the risk group and people under arrest into society by encouraging them to renounce their extremist ideology and giving them certain social guarantees that allow them to become full-fledged members of society and law-abiding citizens once more. This new comprehensive approach should be based on using information technology and ensuring information security to oppose extremism.
An information policy that pursues targeted communicative-information acts aimed at ensuring the information and psychological security of citizens and the country should be the top priority of information security.15 An open contemporary society, which implies a transparent information system incorporating a variety of information sources, requires an integrating vector of social development that reflects the country's national interests. Therefore, the state's information policy must have an influence on people's consciousness, psyche, behavior, and activity by providing information resources and meanings that are significant for the population in the interest of the state and civil society. In these conditions, the media assumes a greater role as the main channel of information having an impact on public consciousness. So a chain is formed: the state-media-collective consciousness, where interaction acquires the complicated nature of mass communication, while information processes in society are oriented toward expressing and protecting the rights of the individual, the interests of society, and the policy of the state.16 Particular attention must be
13 "Massovye aktsii protiv pokhishcheniia veruiushchikh v Dagestane nabiraiut oboroty," available at [http:// kavkaz.ge/2011/11/25/massovye-akcii-protiv-poxishheniya-veruyushhix-v-dagestane-nabirayut-oboroty/].
14 See: G.G. Matishov, I.V. Pashchenko, "Terrorizm kak glavnaia ugroza natsionalnoy bezopasnotsti na Iuge Ros-sii," in: Prioritetnye napravleniia strategii natsionalnoi bezopasnosti Rossiyskoy Federatsii, SKAGS, Rostov-on-Don, 2011, pp. 24-32.
15 See: V.D. Popov, Informatsiologiia i informatsionnaia politika, Moscow, 2001, p. 62.
16 See: Ibid., p. 65.
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focused on ensuring information and psychological security and observing the state's national interests in the information sphere as a strategic goal of the government's information policy at the regional and federal levels.17
Projects have been implemented since 2010 within the framework of the general strategy of opposition to extremism in the Northern Caucasus based on several principles of restorative justice, in particular on efforts to rehabilitate the offender by reintegrating him into society with the help of psychological support and opportunities to obtain an education and find a job. The first initiatives took the form of establishing commissions responsible for helping former extremists adapt to a peaceful life. Such commissions exist in the territory of two Russian republics—Daghestan and Ingushetia.
Daghestan was the first republic to begin implementing this project, where a commission was established in 2010 under the President of the Republic for rendering assistance in rehabilitating people who have decided to renounce their terrorist and extremist activity in the Republic of Daghestan (Decree of the President of the Republic of Daghestan of 2 November, 2010). The commission is to become a mediator between the members of illegal extremist groups and the state. It should enjoy the population's trust and be competent to guarantee security to those who make contact with participants in armed opposition groups. The commission has examined more than 50 cases, usually of the following nature: assisting mitigation of intercession measures for participation in the activity of armed opposition groups in Daghestan; interceding on the part of people arrested on suspicion of participating in terrorism with the aim of helping them to obtain a religious education (study the basics of Islam in a madrasah); assisting the relatives of rebels to return home and freeing them from persecution measures carried out by the law-enforcement structures; petitioning to the leaders of the Federal Service for Execution of Punishment on cancelling decisions to send those accused of participating in armed occupation groups to serve their terms outside Daghestan. However, none of the commission's decisions have legal force, rather they are of a recommendatory nature. Therefore a mechanism for granting amnesty to persons who have not directly participated in terrorist acts must be drawn up and adopted. So the next step in institutionalizing the commission's work should be legislative enforcement of such commissions' powers so that corresponding recommendations for the law-enforcement structures are of a legally competent nature. This is why the deputies of the National Assembly of Daghestan adopted a decision to submit a draft to the Russian Federation State Duma on amnesty for former extremists. The draft is largely based on the text of State Duma Resolution No. 3498-4 of 22 September, 2006 On the Amnesty of Persons who Committed Crimes during Counterterrorist Operations in the Territory of Russian Federation Constituents within the Southern Federal District18 with addition of Art 132 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation19 to the list of those not subject to amnesty. According to President of the Daghestani Guild of Lawyers, Lawyer Rasul Kadiev,20 the draft does not reflect the regional specifics of Daghestan and must be significantly revised.
Special attention must also be given to the post-rehabilitation period in order to prevent recidivism, since it is always possible that the individual will return to criminal activity. A logical step in the commission's development could be establishing a certain structure that would maintain contact with former extremists even after their official reintegration into society.
17 See: Problemy ustoychivogo razvitiia regiona: informatsionnaia bezopasnostpolietnichnogo sotsiuma (na mate-rialakh Iuga Rossii), ed. by V.M. Iurchenko, Kuban State University, Krasnodar, 2011, pp. 215-216.
18 Postanovlenie Gosudarstvennoy Dumy ot 22 sentiabria 2006 goda No. 3498-4 GD "Ob obiavlenii amnistii v ot-noshenii lits, sovershivshikh prestupleniia v periodprovedeniia kontrterroristicheskikh operatsiy na territoriiakh subektov Rossiyskoy Federatsii, nakhodiashchikhsia v predelakh Iuzhnogo federalnogo okruga, " available at [http://www.rg.ru/ printable/2006/09/23/amnistia-dok.html].
19 See: Art 132, "Nasilstvennye deystviia seksualnogo kharaktera," available at [http://www.consultant.ru/popular/ ukrf/10_26.html#p1767].
20 See: Rasul Kadiev: "'Kadyrovskaia' amnistiia ne spaset Daghestan," available at [http://xn—c1adwdmv.xn— p1ai/news/1469137.html].
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Ingushetia borrowed Daghestan's experience in September 2011 and a commission responsible for rehabilitating members of illegal armed formations is now officially functioning in the republic. The commission renders legal, psychological, and medical assistance to people who have decided to renounce their terrorist and extremist activity and helps them and the members of their families to make living arrangements right down to moving to a place of permanent residence outside the republic. The commission operates according to the following scheme: contact is established with the former member of an armed opposition group personally or with his relatives (however, the rebel is required to appear in person at commission sittings where all the circumstances of his case are examined). Surrender and assisting the investigation are considered mitigating circumstances and contribute to a more lenient sentence, in certain cases right down to cessation of criminal persecution. If the militant's guilt is proven in court, the commission will petition for the sentence to be served in the territory of the North Caucasian Federal District or the Southern Federal District. Moreover, the rebel's relatives will be provided with financial aid on a one-time basis once a year to visit him regardless of where he is serving his term. The commission's activity is comprehensive, including examination of statements by citizens on instances of the violation of human rights and compensation of property damage inflicted during the counterterrorist operation. In 2010-2011, more than 74 former rebels returned to a peaceful life.
However, not much confidence is placed in the capabilities of these commissions, which is primarily associated with the crisis of trust in the activity of the state power structures. However, the work of the commissions should become instrumental in restoring balance in society and reducing tension in the region. Moreover, these initiatives should focus on cultivating a positive perception of their results in order to attract more people who wish to return to a peaceful life. This can be achieved with the help of constant information support that makes the work of the structure and the framework of its competence as transparent and understandable as possible, as well as by drawing more human rights activists and authoritative people into the efforts.
Conclusion
Every republic is resolving its security problems keeping in mind its own specifics. For example, Daghestan is planning to ensure security by raising the competence and qualifications of the defense and security structures, continuing to carry out programs that help rebels who have decided to renounce terrorist activity to adapt to a peaceful life, and establishing a religious dialog. To this end, the military presence is increasing in the republic and joint task forces are being formed with the specific aim of opposing armed extremists. At the same time, Chechnia is increasing its control over the Internet as a measure to prevent the spread of extremist ideas and prohibiting radical Islamic trends in the republic's territory. The local administrations are also taking responsibility for supporting young people and their families in order to ensure the timely prevention of extremist groups being replenished with new members. These measures should supplement the activity of the defense and security structures. The republic's law-enforcement structures intend to increase their efforts to destroy the remains of illegal armed formations and step up preventive measures aimed at exposing their participants and accomplices. Chechnia has become the first republic in which subdivisions comprised largely of ethnic Chechens have been formed within the Ministry of Internal Affairs responsible for security of the republic's government and carrying out counterterrorist operations.
However, joint efforts are necessary for opposing extremism with the help of information technology. One of the key mechanisms in opposing extremist ideology is an intelligent information policy aimed at reducing tension and conflict potential in society and at promoting a positive image of contemporary youth. An important role in this process goes to stepping up efforts with national centers and groups, religious organizations, and official and unofficial politically active associations and
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to using all possible information mechanisms to prevent extremist ideas and teachings related both to the religious and to the ethnic factor from spreading among young people.
It stands to reason that in contrast to the forceful method of opposing extremism, it will take a long time for preventive initiatives and control of the information sphere to reap results. Changes in values and perception occur gradually. Forming a culture of peace and non-acceptance of violence is only possible in a society where problems are efficiently solved by methods other than force. The most important factor in this process is interaction between the state and organizations of a civil society.
