CC BY
1230
MEDICAL SCIENCES / «ШУУШШШМ-ШЦТМак» #17»!), 2022
Alexander Sergey Tomashuk DOI: 10.24412/2520-6990-2022-17140-30-45
INFORMATION FOR FORMING A MODEL OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, WHICH DESCRIBES THE WORK OF THE HUMAN CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Abstract.
In the paper, it is to get acquainted with information, that describes the work of the central nervous system of the brain of a living organism, such as a human, to organize work on the formation of a mathematical model, that describes this process, and which can be applied in artificial intelligence technology, as a copy of the original, which is presented in a some percentage, in accordance with the amount of known information about this process, is proposed. In the paper, reference material is presented: briefly, the basics of anatomy, neurophysiology and neurochemistry are given; the structure and connections of some parts of the brain are described; the principle of operation of the system, which consist from the ventral stream of the optic tract and the final stage, in which the information has been processed is stored, is described; also, several hypotheses regarding the work of the central nervous system is proposed.
Keywords: anatomy, neurophysiology, neurochemistry, central nervous system, human brain, neuron, mathematical model, artificial intelligence.
1. Introduction.
Today, most of the software (SW), in their algorithms, uses artificial intelligence (AI) methods. The most advanced technologies in this area, of course, are used in robotics - for example, humanoid robots, the structure and functions of which largely copy the living human organism [1-3]. In most of these robots, SW algorithms use information processing methods, which based on the operation of an artificial neural network, which, according to the principle of operation, resembles the work of some part of the central nervous system (CNS) of a living organism.
There is a position that "Intelligence gained by computers "must always be an intelligence alien to genuine human problems or concerns"" [4, 5]. An interpretation of this position was published in one of the works in 1987.
However, today, there is a clear exception - one of these humanoid robots, whose "name" is "Sophia", was recognized as a citizen of Saudi Arabia, and, in fact, received a document that confirms this [3].
Over the last period of time, the SW used in such robots has been supplemented by algorithms, which based on advanced methods for the formation of a mental state, object recognition, etc. [6-9]. In addition, when forming a model of the artificial mental state of such a robot, information can be used that describes some part of the CNS of a living organism, such as a model for correlating the rhythms of its brain with its state and behavior [9-11].
Humanoid robots, to a greater extent, need to improve AI technologies. Actually, the problem is the unsatisfactory result of the work of their intellect, usually, which is compared with the work of the intellect of a living organism.
The purpose of this study is to improve the technology of AI of humanoid robots by forming it, according to known information about the work of the human brain.
The task of this work was the search and analysis of known information in relation to the goal, which was set.
2. Analysis of information sources.
2.1. Information regarding the construction and operation of the neural network.
In the CNS, several elements can be distinguished, which, as a result of influence on each other, cause its activity. These elements include - nerve cells, nerve fibers, glial cells, blood vessels, fluids.
With the use of nerve cells (neurons), an electrical signal is transmitted inside and between the parts (subdivisions) of the brain and the organs that are associated with it [12]. At a high level of hierarchy, the construction of a nerve cell consists of the soma (cell body) and its dendrites (fibers, through which the signal enters the cell body), axon (fiber that provides signal transmission to some distance from the cell body) and axon terminals (fibers, through which the signal exits from this cell to the next, through its dendrites). The structure of the soma includes the cell nucleus, which contains a set of chromosomes, which are formed from a molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which, in turn, has a set of genes. DNA is the main program for the development of an organism [12, 13]. Functions such as apoptosis, neurogenesis, homeostasis, etc. are part of this program.
For a long time, there is a hypothesis that information is a memory that is stored for a long period, at the molecular level, encoded and stored in proteins [14, 15]. Moreover, according to one of the theories, such an element of information arises and continues to be at the point of contact of neurons - the synapse [14, 15]; on the other hand, in ribonucleic acid and/or DNA [1618].
The construction of the nerve fiber consists of an axon with or without a myelin sheath (isolated from an external source).
The structure of the glial cell consists of the cell body and its processes. These cells ensure the maintenance of the correct functioning of the nervous network. Depending on the function, several types of these cells are distinguished: oligodendrocyte, astrocyte, microglia, radial glia and tanycyte [12, 19]. In the brain, the number of glial cells exceeds the number of nerve
31
«CQyyOMUM-JOyrMaiL» #17(И4©), 2022 / MEDICAL SCIENCES
cells by approximately 3 times. Glial cells, unlike nerve cells, can divide.
With regard to the charge - the action potential, of the nerve cell, it is distinguished by 2 types - positively charged - excitatory type, and negatively - inhibitory type. In the brain, 80% of all nerve cells are excitatory, rest - inhibitory (interneurons, which, usually, serve as feedback).
According to the method of signal transmission between nerve cells, there are: ionotropic (electric, in both directions), metabotropic (chemical, in one direction) and combined method [12].
When a signal is transmitted between nerve cells using a chemical method, substances are transferred -a neurotransmitter (the main substance) and a modulator (regulation of the proportion of the amount of the main substance).
Neurotransmitters - mediators and modulators based on amino acids include: gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) (inhibitory, -40% of all neurons), glutamic acid (glutamate) (excitatory, -40%), glycine (inhibitory), taurine ( inhibitory), aspartic acid (excitatory); monoamines: acetylcholine (excitatory and inhibitory, -5%), norepinephrine (noradrenaline) (excitatory and inhibitory, <1%), histamine (excitatory), dopamine (excitatory and inhibitory) and serotonin (excitatory and inhibitory, 1-2%); peptides: enkephalin, endorphin, substance P, somatostatin, neurotensin, adrenocorticotropin, angiotensin, etc. [12, 20]. Table 1 presents known information regarding the characteristics of brain neurotransmitters.
The synthesis of amino acids and peptides comes from blood substances, in particular, from glucose; synthesis of acetylcholine, dopamine, and noradrenaline -from tryptophan and tyrosine [20]. The sources of NO are endotheliocytes of blood vessels, microglial and astrocyte cells, as well as nerve cells, the main component of which is glutamate [20].
Nerve cells are of the following types: stellate (two types - excitatory and inhibitory), pyramidal (excitatory), spindle-shaped Lugaro (inhibitory), Purkinje cells (GABA), granular (granular) (two types - glutamate and GABA), mossy cells (two types - glutamate and GABA), basket cells (GABA), Golgi cells (GABA), axo-axonic (chandelier) cells (GABA), bundle cells (glutamate), Betz cells (glutamate), mitral cells (glutamate), lacuno-ascending cells (inhibitory), periglomerular cells (GABA and dopamine), unipolar brush cells (glutamate), HIPP cells (GABA), bipolar cells ("on" and "olf") (glutamate, GABA), horizontal cells, ganglion cells (parvocellular (-80%), magnocel-lular (-10%), koniocellular (-10%)) ("on" and "olf") (glutamate and GABA), Martinotti cells, marginal cells, von Economo (spindle) cells, parvalbumin-posi-tive cells, MOPP cells, HICAP cells, etc. [12, 20].
In the CNS, there is an effect that results in the generation of "arbitrary" signals. Nerve cells that have this effect are called pacemakers. They are of the following types: network pacemakers, pacemakers with intracellular pulse reverberation, pacemakers with a built-in pulse generator with a frequency of 0.1-10 Hz (located in the respiratory center) [12].
All signals - excitatory and inhibitory, which entered the body of a nerve cell over a certain period of time, are summed up. Positive signals cause depolarization, negative signals cause hyperpolarization. An action potential occurs if the critical (threshold) signal level, usually, which is -50 mV, has been exceeded. The resting potential is a passive moment, the cell is in the range from -50 to -100 mV, and, usually, it is -70 mV [12].
At the moment, when the signal arrives, not only the membrane potential of the nerve cell changes, but also the glial potential, which is in contact. The membrane potential of glial cells is 70-90 mV.
Table 1.
Characteristics and functions of some brain neurotransmitters.
Name System Impact Functions Advanced
Glutamic acid (gluta- mate) (amino acid) Mediator, modulator Excitation Increased activity in higher nervous activity. -40% content of all nerve cells [12]. Receptors are ionotropic and metabotropic [20]. Ionotropic receptors: NMDA are located in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, sensory-associative system and basal ganglia; AMPA are located almost throughout the CNS [21]; kainate are located in the hippocampus.
GABA (amino acid) Mediator Inhibition (most), excitation Decreased activity in higher nervous activity. -40% content of all nerve cells. It is synthesized from glutamate [12, 20]. Ionotropic receptors - GABAa, GABAc and metabotropic - GABAb [20].
Aspartate (amino acid) Mediator Excitation Regulation of the reflexes activity, motor learning. The content in the interneurons of the midbrain, the inferior olive of the medulla oblongata in the hindbrain, as well as in the dorsal and ventral gray matter of the spinal cord.
32 MEDICAL SCIENCES / «ШУУШЩШУМ-ШУГМак» #17Й4©]), 2022
Glycine (amino acid) Mediator, modulator Inhibition Decreased activity in higher nervous activity. The receptor is ionotropic. Location in the brain stem and spinal cord. Causes inhibition of motor neurons from interneurons - for example, Renshaw cells (spinal cord), using feedback. In the retina, there is an inhibitory neurotransmitter. It is a modulator for NMDA-receptors (glutamate).
Acetylcho- line (monoam- ine) Mediator, modulator [22] Excitation, inhibition Excitation, inhibition Increase or decrease in activity in the higher nervous system. Regulation of the level of wakefulness, memory and movement systems. ~5% content of all nerve cells. Synthesized from tryptophan. Receptors are ionotropic and metabotropic. Motor neuron mediator. Location in the medial nucleus of the septum, diagonal ligament, basal giantcell nucleus; efferent projections in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, etc.
Norepi- nephrine (Noradren- aline) (monoam- ine) (catechola- mine) Mediator, modulator Excitation, inhibition Generates positive emotions. Regulation of the level of wakefulness, individual parameters in the centers of needs and motivation, motor activity, state (expression) of emotions, decreased sensitivity to pain. >1% content in all nerve cells. Synthesized from dopamine. The receptor is metabotropic. Location in the lateral reticular formation of the pons, the locus coeruleus, the medulla oblongata, and the nucleus of the solitary tract. An excess of a substance leads to hyperactivity, a loss - to a decrease in attention, apathy and depression.
Dopamine (monoam- ine) (catechola- mine) Mediator, modulator Excitation (D1, D5 receptors), inhibition (D2-D4 receptors) Regulation of the state of emotions, general motor activity, the speed of processing sensory information, the speed of thinking, the hormonal sphere, the center of biological needs. <1% content in nerve cells. Synthesized from tyrosine. Metabotropic receptors. The D1 and D2 receptors are located in the striatum; D5, D3 and D4 - in the hippocampus and hypothalamus; D2 and D3 - in the substantia nigra. Location in the substantia nigra with afferent projections to the putamen and caudate nucleus of the telencephalon; nuclei of the ventral tegmentum - into the olfactory, associative frontal, pre-motor, motor, visual cortex of the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, amygdala; hypothalamus - in the subthalamic nuclei and the hypothalamus.
Serotonin (monoam- ine) Mediator, modulator, hormone Excitation, inhibition It inhibits the centers of negative emotions, does not provide positive ones; consciousness and brain activity to ensure the "sleep" mode. Raises the pain threshold. Decreased sensitivity to signals that satisfy the type of noise that causes the effect of hallucinations, depending on the level of the signal, in the cerebral cortex. <1% content in nerve cells. Synthesized from tryptophan. Receptors are ionotropic and metabotropic. Location in the nuclei raphes; efferent projections to the limbic system, basal ganglia and cerebral cortex; efferent projections to the brainstem and spinal cord.
<<C®yL®(MUM~JOy©Ma[L>> #Щ14©]), 2022 / MEDICAL SCIENCES 33
As a hormone: regulation of the state of blood vessels.
Histamine (monoam- ine) Mediator, modulator Excitation Facilitation of awakening, motor and sexual activity is stimulated; pain sensitivity and eating behavior are weakened. Enhances the effects of allergies. Location in the tuberomamillary nuclei of the posterior part of the hypothalamus (small area); efferent projections, practically, on all parts of the CNS. Most nerve cells that contain histamine, also, contain GABA, substance P or enkephalin.
Nitroxide Mediator Excitation, inhibition Regulation of blood pressure. Work occurs in conjunction with acetylcholine. Synthesized from L-arginine and O2. It is transported from the site of synthesis -endotheliocyte, microglia, astrocyte or NMDA-receptor (glutamate) to the cell body. The lifetime is from several to 10 seconds.
Substance P (peptides) Mediator, modulator Excitation Increased activity in higher nervous activity It is synthesized in the cell body of the primary sensory nerve cells of the spinal ganglia. The receptor is metabotropic. Location in the hippocampus, neocortex of the cerebral cortex, afferent C-fibers of peripheral nerves; projections of the dorsal cornus of the spinal cord. It affects secondary sensory nerve cells and motor neurons (the signal value is 200 times higher, than the signal value from glutamate exposure).
Somatosta- tin (peptides) Mediator, hormone Inhibition Inhibition of the secretion of growth hormone (somatotropin). Location in the hypothalamus; efferent projections in the pituitary gland, spinal ganglia, amygdala and cerebral cortex.
Opioid peptides (peptides) Mediator, modulator Inhibition Regulation of sexual behavior, aggression and hierarchical subordination in the community. Pain suppression. Formation of emotions, motivation. They are synthesized from proteins (hormones) and peptides: propiomelanocortin (endorphin, met-enkephalin), prodynorphin (dynorphins) and proenkephalin A (leu-enkephalin, met-enkephalin), respectively. Metabotropic receptors. Location of endorphins in the hypothalamus; efferent projections to the nuclei of the hypothalamus, the area of the septum, the amygdala, the upper parts of the brain stem, the locus coeruleus (monoaminergic cells), the raphe nuclei, around the ventricles (most); in the cerebral cortex, striatum and thalamus. Location of dynorphins in the hypothalamus, medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain and spinal cord. The location of endomorphin in nerve cells, the active substance of which is histamine, in the nuclei of the solitary tract, periventricular or dorsomedial parts of the hypothalamus. Location of enkephalins in the hippocampus; in the cerebral cortex, striatum and thalamus; pons, amygdala, olfactory bulb.
34 MEDICAL SCIENCES / «ШУУШЩШУМ-ШУГМак» #17Й4©]), 2022
Canna- Modula- Excitation, Perceptual changes; Location in the neocortex; basal ganglia
binoids tor inhibition psychomotor short-term changes. control; memory and cerebellum; hippocampus. The effect of signal modulation is manifested in the suppression of inhibition in the process of GABA transmission, and the suppression of excitation - glutamate.
2.2. Information regarding the construction of the brain.
The human brain consists of sections: prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain) [23]. Below, in the direction of the rhombencephalon section, the section of the spinal cord follows. Figure 1 shows a block diagram of the brain regions.
For the most part, each of the areas of the brain that contains neurons is in its structure made up of clusters of columns (otherwise called "hypercolumns" or "cortical modules") of neurons, which in turn are made
up of mini-columns. Typically, in human brain, a hypercolumn contains 50-100 minicolumns, with each minicolumn consisting of approximately 200-300 neurons [24].
For the most part, each of the parts of the brain that contains neurons, in its structure, consists of one to several surface layers. Depending on the physical size and function of the brain region, there may be a different number of such layers, even within the same brain region.
Rhombencephalon
4
Metencephalon
Myelencephalon
Pons
Cerebellum
Figure 1. The structure of the brain.
Cerebral cortex
The cerebral hemispheres are the most massive part of the human brain. This department is divided into two equal parts - hemispheres. The structure of the cerebral hemispheres is divided into two surface layers -the cerebral cortex and, in fact, the cerebral hemispheres, upper and lower, respectively; moreover, the first is represented by gray matter (neurons), and the second is white (myelinated nerve fibers).
The cerebral cortex consists of 5 lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal (represented by two separate components, in accordance with the left and right hemispheres of the brain) and insular.
In addition, this department is divided into 52 areas - Brodmann's cytoarchitectonic areas, and each of these performs separate functions [25].
In addition, this department is represented by several types of cortex: ancient (paleocortex), old (ar-chicortex), intermediate (mesocortex) and new (neocortex); in ratio, 2.2%, 0.6%, 1.6% and 95.6%; and in the number of layers, 1, 2-3, 4-5, and 6, respectively [26, 27]. Each type and each layer of each type has a specific structure.
The cerebral cortex is connected to all parts of the brain. This part of the brain performs the function of processing information of various types, and largely than other parts.
Table 2 presents known information on the functions and number of neurons in some parts of the brain. Table 3 presents known information regarding the structure of some parts of the brain.
«CQyyOMUM-JOyrMaiL» #17(И4©), 2022 / MEDICAL SCIENCES
35
Table 2.
Functions and characteristics of the brain parts.
Name of brain part Location (brain part) Functions Neurons number (approx. value) Surface layers number
Cerebral cortex Telencepha- lon Analysis and processing of information that is input. Each of the 52 areas performs separate functions [25-27]. 16П109 [28] 1 (paleocortex), 2-3 (ar-chicortex), 4-5 (mesocor-tex), 6 (neocortex) (see text)
Corpus callosum Telencepha- lon Provides connection of different parts of the brain with the cerebral cortex. 200-300 nm6 (nerve fibers) [29]
Nuclei basales Telencepha- lon Ensuring the regulation of motor and autonomic functions, the implementation of integrative processes. 3,154,350 [30]
Corpus amygda-loideum Telencepha- lon Formation of emotions (with a destroyed part, there is no fear). 12.75 П106 (adult) (see source) [31]; 11,138,599 [30]
Ventriculi later-ales (I и II) Telencepha- lon Maintaining homeostasis is what carries out neurogenesis [32]. They contain cerebrospinal fluid, in an amount of approximately 500 ml.
Hippocampus Telencepha- lon Transforms short-term memory into long-term memory, carries out neurogenesis. Daily, in the process of neurogenesis, the hippocampus produces, on average, 700 or 1400 new neurons (see source [33] and [12], respectively). At the same time, every year, approximately 1.75% are updated. 30-36П106 (adult) (see source) [34] 6 (CA3), 5 (CA1 and CA2), 3 (dentate gyrus) [34-41]
Bulbus olfacto-rius Diencepha- lon Carries out signal transmission, and, possibly, its preliminary processing. One of the links between the links of the limbic system. 6-7 [42-45]
Epithalamus Diencepha- lon Regulation of circadian rhythms, secretion of hormones by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, motor functions (basal ganglia), emotions (limbic system), memory and cognitive functions [46]. Carries out a connection between the parts of the brain with the limbic system and the basal ganglia.
Thalamus Diencepha- lon Pre-processing of visual, auditory and somatosensory information that comes from the senses. Visual information is processed in the lateral geniculate body, auditory information is processed in the 11.2П106 (newborn) and 6.43 П106 (adult) (medial dorsal nucleus) [48]; 6 (lateral geniculate nucleus) [49]
36
MEDICAL SCIENCES / «ШУУШШШМ-ШЦТМак» #17»!), 2022
medial geniculate body of the quadri-gemina. Further, the information is sent to the part of primary signal processing, which is located in the cerebral cortex [47]. 49,291,830 [30]
Hypothalamus Diencepha- lon Organization of behavior for the purpose of survival. For this work, it use memory and emotional state. Associated with almost all parts of the CNS. 260 nm6 (adult) [50]
Cerebral peduncle Mesenceph- alon Carries out communication between parts of the brain. 21 □ 106 (nerves fibers) [51]
Corpora quadri-gemina Mesenceph- alon Pre-processing of information that comes from the visual and auditory department. The superior colliculi process visual information, while the inferior colliculi process auditory information. -25M03 (hearing neurons) (inferior colliculi) [52] 7 (superior colliculi), 4 (inferior colliculi) [53-58]
Substantia nigra Mesencephalon (Corpora quadri-gemina) Motor function and muscle tone in the systems of respiration, cardiac activity and the tone of blood vessels. 707,228 [30]
Locus coeruleus Metencepha- lon Physiological response to tension and anxiety, production of noradrenaline. It has access to the cerebral hemispheres, the hippocampus, the amygdala and the cerebellum. 22-51 □m3 (19-78 years) [59]; 47,493 [60]
Pons Metencepha- lon Transfer of information from the spinal cord to the brain. Eye reflexes, reflex blinking, intestinal motility, urination, etc. 20M06 [61] 3 [62]
Cerebellum Metencepha- lon Coordination of movements, regulation of balance and muscle tone. Receives information from the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, extrapyramidal system, brain stem and spinal cord. 69 □109 [29] 3 [63]
Oliva Myelenceph- alon Superior olivary complex is involved in sound perception; Inferior olive - in the learning and functioning of cerebellar motility. 21,100 [64] or 5,871 [65] (MSO+LSO) (superior olivary complex); 716,895 (inferior olive) [30]
«CQyyOMUM-JOyrMaiL» #17(И4©), 2022 / MEDICAL SCIENCES
37
Table 3.
Structure of the brain parts.
Name of brain part Structure of brain part Afferents (input) Efferents (output)
Neocortex I layer. Molecular (plexiform) II/III layer: I-III layer.
(Cerebral cortex) layer: nerve fibers, horizontal - connection with the - connection with vari-
(rare), pyramidal (rare) and fusi- thalamus lateral genicu- ous areas of the cerebral
form (rare) cells; II layer. Outer granular layer: py- late nuclei. cortex;
ramidal, granular (excitatory, glu- IV layer: III layer:
tamate) and granular (inhibitory, - fibers of pyramidal - connection within the
GABA, small amount) cells; cells; region (columns) of the
III layer. Pyramidal layer: pyramidal, granular cells (inhibitory, - stellate cell fibers: - primary sensory cortex cerebral cortex;
GABA, small amount); have a connection with V layer:
IV layer. Inner granular layer: the ventral posterolateral - connection with the
granular cells (excitatory, gluta- and ventral posterome- tectum (corpora quadri-
mate); dial nuclei of the thala- gemma) and red nu-
V layer. Inner pyramidal (Gan- mus; cleus of the midbrain;
glion) layer: ganglion (pulse gen- - the primary visual cor- the reticular formation
eration), pyramidal, granular (in- tex has a connection with of the brain stem; the
hibitory, GABA, small amount) the thalamus lateral ge- pons; motor nuclei; the
and Betz cells (primary motor cortex); niculate nuclei; - primary auditory cortex spinal cord;
VI layer. Polymorphic layer: fusi- have a connection with VI layer:
form, pyramidal (small amount) the thalamus medial ge- - fusiform and pyrami-
and Martinotti cells (multipolar, interneurons, small amount) [26, 27]. *~75% of the volume are pyramidal cells. niculate nuclei; V layer: - connection with layer II/III. dal cells have connections with the thalamus.
CA1 (Hippocam- I layer. Lacuno-molecular layer: I layer: I layer:
pus) pyramidal (small amount), basket - connection with the lat- - fibers of pyramidal
(small amount) and lacuno-as-cending cells (small amount); eral entorhinal cortex. cells: - connection with the
II layer. Radiant layer: pyramidal V layer: entorhinal and perirhi-
(small amount) and granular cells - connection with the me- nal cortex; the parater-
(inhibitory, GABA, small dial entorhinal cortex; the minal gyrus, preoptic
amount); cingulate gyrus; indu- and anterior nuclei of
III layer. Pyramidal layer: pyram- sium gray and septal nu- the hypothalamus; the
idal cells; clei; the contralateral hip- anterior nucleus of the
IV layer. Oriental layer: basket pocampus; the outer and thalamus, with mastoid
and pyramidal cells; inner parts of the entorhi- body, habenular nuclei;
V layer. Plexiform layer: nerve fi- nal cortex through the the nucleus accumbens;
bers. *90% - pyramidal cells; **10% - interneurons [35-39]. perforant and alveolar pathways, respectively; the amygdala. the amygdala.
CA2 (Hippocampus) Same as in CA1 Same as in CA1 Same as in CA1
CA3 (Hippocampus) I layer. Lacuno-molecular layer (same as in CA1); Same as in CA1 Same as in CA1
II layer. Radiant layer: (same as in III слой: II/IV layers:
CA1); - connection with perirhi- - connection with
III layer. Shiny layer: pyramidal cells; IV layer. Pyramidal layer: (same as in CA1); V layer. Oriental layer: (same as in layer IV in CA1); nal cortex and locus co-eruleus [41]. perirhinal cortex.
38
MEDICAL SCIENCES / «ШУУШШШМ-ШЦТМак» #17»!), 2022
VI layer. Plexiform layer: (same as in layer V in CA1).
Dentate gyrus (Hippocampus) I layer. Molecular layer: mossy fibers, MOPP and axo-axonic cells; II layer. Granular layer: granular (excitatory, glutamate) and basket cells; III layer. Polymorphic layer: mossy fibers (formed by granular cells), basket, mossy (excitatory and inhibitory, glutamate and GABA, respectively), HIPP and HICAP cells [41]. *16% - HIPP cells. I layer: - fibers of granular cells: - connection with the lateral entorhinal cortex; II layer: - connection with the hypothalamus; III layer: - connection with septal nuclei and locus co-eruleus [41]. Does not exist [39].
Bulbus olfactorius I layer. Olfactory nerve layer: nerve fibers (axons of olfactory sensory neurons) (excitatory); II layer. Glomerular layer: peri-glomerular (inhibitory, GABA and dopamine, interneuron) and bundle cells; III layer. Outer plexiform layer: parvalbumin-positive cells (interneuron); IV layer. Mitral cell layer: mitral cells; V layer. Inner plexiform layer: nerve fibers; VI layer. Granular layer: granular cells (inhibitory, GABA, interneuron), nerve fibers (axons of mitral and fascicular cells) [42, 43]. *~43 □ 103 mitral cells for the age of 40 years [45]. I-II layer: - fibers of mitral and fascicular cells: - connection with the main olfactory epithelium. VI layer: - fibers of mitral and fascicular cells: - connection with the olfactory cortex: - anterior olfactory nucleus; tenia tecta; olfactory tubercle; pearshaped bark; anterior nuclei of the cortex of the amygdala; entorhi-nal cortex.
Thalamus Lateral geniculate nucleus (Thalamus) I-II layer. Magnocellular layer: magnocellular (monochrome) and koniocellular cells; III-VI layer. Parvocellular layer: parvocellular (color) and koni-ocellular cells. *koniocellular cells are found in the spaces between the layers. I (II) layer: - fibers of magnocellular cells: - communication with M-ganglion cells (...)*; - ()**• IV and VI (III and V) layers: - fibers of parvocellular cells: - communication with P-ganglion cells (...)*; - ()**• Spaces between layers: - fibers of koniocellular cells: - communication with K-ganglion cells (...)*; - ()** I, IV and VI (II, III and V) layers: - cell fibers: - connection with the primary visual cortex (V1); the visual-associative cortex (V2, V3); nucleus of the thalamus pulvinar.
<<C®yL®(MUM~JOy©Ma[L>> #Щ14©]), 2022 / MEDICAL SCIENCES 39
*both retinas of the visual system. **connection with the visual cortex, quadrigem-ina, thalamic reticular nuclei, reticular formation, dorsal nucleus, dorsal raphe nucleus, periaqueductal gray matter, pons [55], locus coeruleus.. ***95% of information comes from (...)**. ****ipsilateral entrance -layers II, III and V; contralateral entrance - layers I, IV and VI.
Superior colliculus (Corpora quad-rigermina) I part. Superficial department (sensory part): I layer. Zonal layer: nerve fibers (myelinated or unmyelinated), marginal (small) and horizontal cells (small); II layer. Superficial gray layer: nerve cells (multipolar, interneurons); III layer. Optical layer: nerve fibers, nerve cells (multipolar, several, large); II part. Intermediate department (motility part): IV layer. Intermediate gray layer: nerve cells (pre-motor); V layer. Intermediate white layer: nerve fibers; III part. Deep department (motor skills part): VI layer. Dark gray layer: nerve fibers (myelinated), nerve cells (pre-motor); VII layer. Dark white layer: nerve fibers. ? layer. periventricular layers. *one of the options for representing the structure of a brain part [54-56]. I layer: - connection with the primary visual and visual-associative cortex (V1-V3); III layer: - communication with ganglion cells of both retinas of the visual system; IV layer: - connection with the visual-associative cortex (V2); the spinal cord, locus coeruleus, raphe nuclei, reticular formation, hypothalamus; VI layer: - connection with the spinal cord, locus coeruleus, raphe nuclei, reticular formation, hypothalamus. I layer: - connection with the nucleus of the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus; primary visual and visual-associative cortex (V1-V3); V layer: - connection with the cerebral cortex (motility of the visual system); motor cranial nerves; thalamus lateral geniculate nucleus; locus coeruleus; raphe nuclei; reticular formation; VII layer: - connection with the visual-associative cortex (V2); motor cranial nerves, locus coeruleus, raphe nuclei, reticular formation, spinal cord.
Inferior colliculus (Corpora quadri-gemina) I layer - nerve cells (small size); II layer - nerve cells (medium size); III layer - nerve cells (medium size); IV layer - Deep layer: nerve cells (diverse population) [55, 57]. *most nerve cells are inhibitory (GABA); in addition, these cells ? layer: - connection with the nuclei of the snail. I-IV layer: - connection with the thalamus medial geniculate nucleus; the primary auditory cortex and the secondary auditory cortex of the cerebral cortex (Brodmann areas 41 and 42);
40
MEDICAL SCIENCES / «ШУУШШШМ-ШЦТМак» #17»!), 2022
can be divided into at least 4 types that perform different functions [66]. IV layer: - connection with the spinal cord; ? layer: - connection with the dorsal nucleus of the cochlea and the upper nuclei of the olives [58].
Pons I layer. Surface layer; II layer. Intermediate layer; III layer. Deep layer [63]. ? layer: - communication with the cerebral cortex; the spinal cord; the reticular formation; superior colliculus and medial mastoid nucleus [55]; the cerebellum. ? layer: - communication with the cerebellum; the nucleus of the thalamus lateral geniculate nucleus; the hypothalamus; the reticular formation; raphe nuclei; locus coeruleus and periaqueductal gray matter [55]; cerebral cortex (for example, somatosensory cortex); motor cranial nerves (facial, trigeminal, ab-ducens).
Cortex (Cerebellum) I layer. Molecular layer: parallel fibers (axons of granular cells), climbing fibers (rare), basket, Purkinje (rarely) and stellate cells (inhibitory, GABA, interneuron); II layer. Purkinje cell layer: Purkinje (small amount) and Lu-garo cells (small amount), nerve fibers (granular cell axons), climbing fibers; III layer. Granular layer: granular (excitatory, glutamate, high), Golgi (low), Lugaro (low) and unipolar brush cells (interneuron), climbing and mossy fibers. *26П10б is the number of Purkinje cells [67]. **5 □ 1010 is the number of granular cells in layer III [63]. I-II layer: - climbing fiber: - connection with the lower olive; III layer: - mossy fibers: - connection with the pons. I-II layer: - Purkinje cell fibers: - connection with the nuclei of the cerebellum.
2.3. Information on the principle of operation of the CNS.
2.3.1. Receiving the information.
In a living organism, information comes from the external environment through sensory systems - visual, auditory and somatosensory, by means of a signal to individual cells - receptors, which, later, is transmitted to the cells of the nervous network; from the internal - as one of the types of work of mental activity, which based on a mental state that was formed in response to a need for something, by reproducing information from a part of the organism development program from DNA inside the nervous network.
So, for example, if we describe the visual tract, then, initially, in the retina, the signal, through such receptor cells as rods (brightness) and groups of cones (a system of three selected ranges, which is characterized as color vision), comes through bipolar cells into ganglion cells, thereby forming a receptive field, which can be of two types, depending on the type of polarization - "on" and "off". In the general connection, selectively, there are interneurons, the signal of which produces inhibition of the signals of ganglion cells.
Groups of neural networks of different parts process more than one stream of information, which indicates multithreading.
«CQyyOMUM-JOyrMaiL» #17(И4©), 2022 / MEDICAL SCIENCES
41
In a group of nerve cells in the neural network, the number of neurons that constitute a "chain" of sequentially activated nerve cells can be determined by the following expression
^im
l'Jrec\
trecj+btrecj
Nrec
yNfib
Lk
+-----
(tflbk+Atfibk)
Nfib
К
Y^neur
{tneurl+^tn
■ + A
method
(1)
N
where tim is the total time it takes to transmit information, images; trec is the time it takes to transfer information from the receptor cell; tfib is the time it takes to transmit information through the nerve fiber [12]; tneur is the time it takes to transmit a signal between neurons; Nneur, Nrec and Nfib are the numbers of neurons, receptors, and nerve fibers, respectively; At , At and Atf.. are the errors that express the
deviation in the values of the true values [68, 69]; Amethod is an error that expresses the imperfection of the calculation method.
The same expression, but in a "rough" form has the form
N
i^neur
where t.
tim i^rec+^fib)
vneur
(2)
neur, ^гес and tfib
vim (yrec+vfib)
are the arithmetic mean
t
neur
values of the quantities; vneur, vneur and vneur - are the arithmetic mean of the frequency of information transfer between neurons, receptors and nerve fibers, respectively; vim is the maximum frequency of images that the visual system of the organism can perceive.
The rate of signal transmission from one neuron to the next is expressed by
tneur + Atneur = tsyn + tpol + ttran + Atsyn + Atpol + Attran ,(3)
where tsyn is the time spent on signal transmission in the synapse, 1-5 ms [70]; tpoL is the time spent on the work of the neuron is more than, 1.4 ms [12]; ttran is the time it takes to transmit a signal along the axon to the next neuron; At n, Atsyn and Atsyn are errors that express deviations in the values of true values.
In most sources of information that describe the speed (frequency) of the work of a nerve cell, values are given that do not correspond to a real mathematical model of the formation of nerve connections. So, for example, at the "working" frequency of 50-70 Hz, the signal transmission time between neurons is 14-20 ms [12], tneur.
Compared to this information, there is an image refresh rate, vimages, which is generated by the retina and, typically, is 65 Hz [71]. If so, then the transmission of one image, tim, in a "chain" of cells and fibers is 15.4 ms.
In the source [74], it is indicated, that the time for transmission the signal to the thalamus lateral geniculate nucleus (TLGN) is approximately 40 ms for macaques, and with a slightly larger deviation (±) for humans. The results don't match.
Therefore, as a hypothesis, we accept that at the first stage of the optic tract, the signal passes through a path that consists least of two nerve cells - a bipolar
neur
neuron and a ganglion cell, and a receptor, for time, no more than 15.4 ms.
2.3.2. Information processing.
Further, the signal, through the myelinated nerve fiber, enters the nerve cells of the TLGN. The thalamus, as you know, is the "center of the conscious" and each of its subdivisions performs the function of preliminary processing of information that has arrived at the afferent input, and which is carried out due to the formed effect, which describes the level of "attention", which follows from the possible functions of this brain part. "Attention" can be described by a function that depends on several variables, which are formed by the signals of the nerve networks of other parts of the brain (see Table 3), which arrive at the afferent inputs of the TLGN. Depending on the level of "attention", there is inhibition and excitation of individual groups of nerve cells in order to transmit information, along the ventral flow, sequentially, to the afferent inputs of the cerebral cortex areas, where the result of processing this information will be object (image) recognition.
Figure 2 shows a diagram of the ventral stream system and the final stage of the CNS, which describes the path that visual information passes from the beginning, where it is entered, to the end, where the result of its processing is stored.
In separate areas, the following functions are performed [72, 73]: area V1 (primary visual cortex) (Brod-mann area 17) - determination of boundaries (contours); V2 (secondary visual cortex) (area 18) - determination of the orientation of illusory contours, binocular discrepancy, stimulus, as part of a figure or surface; V3 (third visual cortex) (area 19) contains the visual representation of the image, the definition of global movements (for the dorsal stream [74]); V4 (fourth visual cortex) (area 19) - determination of geometric shapes of medium complexity; PIT (area 37) [75], is the posterior area of the inferotemporal (IT) complex - recognition of complex objects; CIT and AIT (area 20) [72], are the central and anterior areas of the IT complex - recognition of complex objects; PR (perirhinal cortex) (areas 35 and 36) - recognition of complex objects, in addition, interacts with memory.
Initially, along the magnocellular pathway, signals enter layer IV-Ca of the V1 area (area 17); according to parvocellular - in IV-Cp [73]; according to caniocel-lular - in II/III [76, p. 6; 77]. Further, after processing in V1, through layers II/III, the signals enter the cells of layers II/III and IV of area V2, and etc. Two areas (areas 35 and 36), which belong to the perirhinal cortex (PR), have a direct connection with the entorhinal cortex and a reciprocal connection with the hippocampus, which suggests that in these areas there is a comparison of the received data with the assumed information.
Figure 2. Diagram of the system, which contains from the ventral stream of the optic tract and the tract of the
final stage of information processing;
where R - retina; TN - thalamus nucleus; TLGN - thalamus lateral geniculate nucleus; SCCQ - Superior colliculus of corpora quadrigermina; V1 (area 17) - primary visual cortex; V2 (area 18) - secondary visual cortex; V3 (area 18) - third visual cortex; V4 (area 19) - fourth visual cortex; PIT (area 37), CIT and AIT (area 20) -posterior, central and anterior inferotemporal cortex; PR (areas 35 and 36) - perirhinal cortex; EC (area 28) -entorhinal cortex; HC (areas CA1, CA3, DG and SC) - hippocampus; CA - corpus amygdaloideum; NA - nucleus accumbens.
2.3.3. Save information.
On the basis of experiments, it was found that, in the state of medium and high concentration of "attention", the minimum time, ttotalmin, which is spent on passing the signal through the entire ventral stream of the visual tract, where the source of information in which it occurs can be sensory system (retina) or internal system (mental state), as well as subsequent areas and parts that allow the formation of a response from the central nervous system to a request, is -100-300 ms for primates, and -150-? ms for humans [72, 78, 79].
The final part of the cycle is the activation of the two-part system, the amygdala (CA) and nucleus ac-cumbens (NA), and reporting this to the thalamus (TN) and hippocampus (HC).
The hippocampus is the part of the brain that, together with the glial cells, provides the maintenance of the brain, which leads to the formation and renewal of nerve cells throughout the brain of the organism.
Supporting the hypothesis from works [16-18], let us assume that, with the use of molecular coding and methylation, information is stored in DNA. One of the proofs of this is the transmission of information by inheritance, to descendants, which was preserved in one of the periods of life - in the hippocampus, with the help of training, in response to a fear reaction to excitement, the DNA of rats was updated in the amount of 9.17% [17].
In addition, if we take into account that some of the organisms do not have separate parts of the brain, then it can be assumed that in other organisms that do have this parts, information can be stored in the DNA of cells, locally, not only in the hippocampus, but also in other parts, and then be updated in the total DNA in the process of repeated passage of signals of nerve networks. Another point that supports this hypothesis is that not all areas of the cerebral cortex are in connections with the hippocampus, which is estimated as the part, in which memory is formed, that may mean, that for information processing, short-term memory can be save in the DNA of separate neurons. If this is true, then, it can be assumed that the modified DNA, which has been updated to take into account new, updated data from all parts of the brain, is a long-term memory. In addiction, if this is true, then, during neurogenesis, the path of migration of a new cell to the place of a dead cell would have been planned in advance, since the CNS "knew" the coordinates of this place in advance.
In order to save resources, always, information is stored in segments and not in full.
2.3.4. Information output.
To the external world, the minimum time for the output of processed information, as a response to a stimulus, using the motor system, can be -150-200 ms [72]. Depending on the type of information supply, unique tracts are used in the CNS.
«ШУУШШШиМ-ШиГМаМ» #17(И4©), 2022 / MEDICAL SCIENCES
43
3. Conclusions.
A method for improving the AI technology of humanoid robots was described, which consists in using information about the design and principle of operation of the CNS of living organisms.
In addiction, the formation of a mathematical model, which is based on known information about the CNS, and its implementation in SW, will allow, to perfection, to study the work of the CNS of living organisms.
In this paper, an analysis of the sources of information in relation to the goal of the study is given: briefly, the basics of anatomy, neurophysiology and neurochemistry are given; the structure and connections of some parts of the brain are shown; describes the principle of operation of the system, which consists from the ventral stream of the optic tract and the final stage, in which the processed information is stored; several hypotheses have been proposed regarding the work of the CNS.
Information sources.
1. Deep Learning-Based Question Answering System for Intelligent Humanoid Robot / W. Budiharto, V. Andreas, A. A. Santoso Gunawan // Journal of Big Data. - 2020. - Vol. 7. - Art. № 77. - 10 p.
2. Real-Time Object Detection and Recognition on Low-Compute Humanoid Robots using Deep Learning / S. Chatteijee, F. H. Zunjani, G. C. Nandi // 2020 6th International Conference on Control, Automation and Robotics (ICCAR). - 2020. - 202-208 pp.
3. Jesus Ratta. Sophia, First Citizen Robot of the World // ResearchGate : [Electronic resource]. - 2017.
- URL: https://www.researchgate.net/publica-
tion/321319964_SOPHIA_FIRST_CITIZEN_ROBOT _OF_THE_WORLD (date of last access: 07.04.2022)
4. Anyfantis I. Towards Artificial Intellegence. Possibilities and Psycho-Philosophical Issues / Ioanis Anyfantis // European Scientific Journal. - 2015. - Vol. 11. - Is. 9. - 39-47 pp.
5. Weizenbaum J. Artificial Intelligence / J. Wiezenbaum // Information Technology: Social Issues. OU. - 1987.
6. Combining Psychological Models with Machine Learning to Better Predict People's Decisions / A. Rosenfeld, I. Zuckerman, A. Azaria et al // Synthese. -2012. - Vol. 189. - 81-93 pp.
7. Recent Generative Adversarial Approach in Face Aging and Dataset Review / H. Pranato, Y. Heryadi, H. L. H. S. Warnars et al // IEEE Access. -2022. - Vol. 10. - 28693-28716 pp.
8. Emotional Recognition from Physiological Signal Analysis: A Review / M. Egger, M. Ley, S. Hanke // Electronic Nots in Theoretical Computer Science. -2019. - Vol. 343. - 35-55 pp.
9. A EEG-Based Emotion Recognition Model with Rhythm and Time Characteristics / J. Yan, Sh. Chen, S. Deng // Brain Informatics. - 2019. - Vol. 6. -Art. 7. - 8 p.
10. Model of Brain Rhythmic Activity / F. H. Lopes da Silva, A. Hoeks, H. Smits et al // Kybernetik.
- 1974. - Vol. 15. - 27-37 pp.
11. Galadi J. A., Torres J. J., Marro J. Emergence of Brain Rhythms: Model Interpretation of EEG Data / ArXiv : [Electronic resource]. - 2019. - URL: https://arxiv.org/pdl/1903.04576.pdf (date of last access: 13.04.2022).
12. Dorogina O.I., Neyrofiziologiya : ucheb. posobiye / O.I. Dorogina. - Yekaterenburg : Izd-vo Ural. un-ta, 2019. - 100 s.
13. Wikipedia. DNA [Electronic resource]. -2022. - URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA (date of last access: 26.05.22)
14. Kandel E. R. The Past, the Future and the Biology of Memory Storage / E. R. Kandel, C. Pittenger // Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. - 1999. - Vol. 354. - 2027-2052
pp.
15. Tee J. Where is Memory Information Stored in the Brain? [Electronic resource] / J. Tee, D. P. Taylor.
- 2021. - URL: https://arxiv.org/abs/2112.05362 (date of last access: 26.05.22).
16. Sudhakaran I. P. Long-Term Memory Consolidation: The Role of RNA-Binding Proteins with PrionLike Domains / I. P. Sudhakaran, M. Ramaswami // RNA Biology. - 2016. - Vol. 14. - Is. 5. - 568-586 pp.
17. Duke C. G. Experience-Dependent Epige-nomic Reorganization in the Hippocampus / C. G. Duke, A. J. Kennedy, C. F. Gavin et al // Learning Memory. - 2017. - Vol. 24. - Is. 7. - 278-288 pp.
18. Bedecarrats A. RNA from Trained Aplysia Can Induce an Epigenetic Engram for Long-Term Sensitization in Untrained Aplysia / A. Bedecarrats, Sh. Chen, K. Pearce et al // eNeuro. - 2018. - Vol. 5. - Is.
3. - Art. 0038-18.2018. - 11 p.
19. Korzhevskiy D. E. Neyrogliya i yeye uchastiye v patogeneze zabolevaniy nervnoy sistemy [Electronic resource] : akstovaya rech' na zasedanii Uchenogo soveta FGBNU "IEM" / D. E. Korzhevskiy.
- SPb, 2019. - 29 s. - URL: https://iemspb.ru/wp-con-tent/uploads/2019/12/2019-
Актовая_речь_Коржевский.pdf (date of last access:
26.05.22)
20. Boldyrev A. A. Nejrohimiya : ucheb. posobie dlya vuzov / A. A. Boldyrev, N. D. Eshchenko, V. A. Ilyuha i dr. - M. : "Drofa", 2010. - 398 s.
21. Wikipedia. AMPA-receptory [Electronic resource]. - 2022. - URL: https://ru.wMpe-
dia.org/wiki/AMPA-рецепторы (date of last access:
31.05.22)
22. Ken Hub. Neurotransmitters [Electronic resource]. - 2022. - URL:
https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/neuro-transmitters (date of last access: 02.06.22)
23. Wikipedia. Golovnoj mozg [Electronic resource]. - 2022. - URL: https://www.ru.wMpe-dia.org/wiki/Головной_мозг (date of last access:
14.05.22)
24. Hashmi A.G. Discovering Cortical Algorithms / A.G. Hashmi, M. H. Lipasti // In Proceedings of the International Conference on Fuzzy Computation and 2nd International Conference on Neural Computation. - 2010. - Vol. 1. - 196-204 pp.
25. Brodmann's Map of the Human Cerebral Cortex - Or Brodmann's Maps? / M. Judas, M. Cepanec,
MEDICAL SCIENCES / «ШУУШШШМ-ШЦТМак» #17»]), 2022
44_
G. Sedmak // Translational Neuroscience. - 2012. -Vol. 3(1). - 67-74 pp.
26. TDMUV. Bol'shie polushariya golovnogo
mozga. Mozzhechok. Vegetativnaya nervnaya sistema [Electronic resource] - URL:
https://tdmuv.com/kafedra/internal/histolog/clas-ses_stud/m/medЛik/ptn/1/П%20Мозжечок.%20Боль шии%20полушария%20головного%20мозга.%20В егетативная%20нервная%20система.htm (date of last access: 17.05.22)
27. Ken Hub. Cytoarchitecture of cerebral cortex
[Electronic resource]. - 2022. - URL:
https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/cortical-cytoarchitecture (date of last access: 21.05.22)
28. Herculano-Houzel S. The Human Brain in Numbers: a Linearly Scaled-up primate brain / S. Herculano-Houzel // Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. -2009. - Vol. 3. - Art. 31. - 11 p.
29. Wikipedia. Corpus callosum [Electronic resource]. - 2022. - URL: https://www.en/wikipe-dia.org/wiki/Corpus_callosum (date of last access:
15.05.22)
30. Wegiel J. Stereological Study of the Neuronal Number and Volume of 38 Brain Subdivisions of Subjects Diagnosed with Autism Reveals Significant Alterations Restricted to the Striatum? Amygdala and Cerebellum / J. Wegiel, M. Flory, I. Kuchna et al// Acta Neuropathologica Communications. - 2014. - Vol. 2.
- Art. 141. - 18 p.
31. Avino T. A. Neuron Numbers Incrase in the Human Amygdala from Birth to Adulthood, but not in Autism / T. A. Avino, N. Barger, M. V. Vargas et al // Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America. - 2018. - Vol. 115. - No. 14.
- 3710-3715 pp.
32. Fujii T. Chapter 1 - Introduction to the Ventricular System and Choroid Plexus / T. Fujii, J. Youssefzadeh, M. Novel et al // The Choroid Plexus and Cerebrospinal Fluid. Emerging Roles in CNS Development, Maintenance, and Disease Progression. -2016. - 1-13 pp.
33. Spalding K. L. Dynamics of Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Adult Humans / K. L. Spalding, O. Bergmann, K. Alkass et al// Cell. - 2013. - Vol. 153(6).
- 1219-1227 pp.
34. Variation in Hippocampal Neuron Number with Age and Brain Volume / A. J. Harding, G. M. Hal-liday, J. J. Kril // Cerebral Cortex. - 1998. - Vol. 8. -Is. 8. - 710-718 pp.
35. Wikipedia. Hippocampus [Electronic resource]. - 2022. - Режим доступа: https://en.wikipe-dia.org/wiki/Hippocampus (date of last access:
18.05.22)
36. Ken Hub. Hippocampus: Anatomy and functions [Electronic resource]. - 2022. - URL:
https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/hippo-campus-structure-and-functions (date of last access:
18.05.22)
37. Chapter 5: Limbic System: Hippocampus [Electronic resource]. - 2020. - Режим доступа: https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s4/chap-ter05.html (date of last access: 18.05.22)
38. Chauhan P. The Anatomy of the Hippocampus / P. Chauhan, K. Jethwa, A. Rathawa et al // Cerebral Ischemia. - 2021. - Ch. 2. - 2-30 pp.
39. Haam J. Septal Cholinergic Neurons Gate Hippocampal Output to Entorhinal Cortex Via Oriens Lacunosum Moleculare Interneurons / J. Haam, J. Zhou, G. Cui, J. L. Yakel // Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America. -
2018. - Vol. 115(8). - 1886-1895 pp.
40. Ken Hub. Dendate gyrus [Electronic resource]. - 2021. - URL:
https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/dentate-gyrus (date of last access: 21.05.22)
41. The Dendate Gyrus: Fundamental Neuroanatomical Organization (Dendate Gyrus for Dummies) / D. G. Amaral, H. E. Scharfman, P. Lavenex // Progress in Brain Research. - 2007. - Vol. 163. - 3-22 pp.
42. Rotermund N. Purinergic Signaling in the Vertebrate Olfactory System / N. Rotermund, K. Schulz, D. Hirnet et al// Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience. -
2019. - Vol. 13. - Art. 112. - 14 p.
43. Kosaka T. Olfactory Bulb Anatomy / T. Kosaka, K. Kosaka // Encyclopedia of Neuroscience. -2009. - 56-69 pp.
44. Sinakevitch I. Comparative Study of Chemical Neuroanatomy of the Olfactory Neuropil in Mouse, Honey Bee, and Human / I. Sinakevitch, G. R. Bjorklund, J. M. Newbern et al // Biological Cybernetics. - 2018. - Vol. 112. - 127-140 pp.
45. Bhatnagar K. P. Number of Mitral Cells and the Bulb Volume in the Aging Human Olfactory Bulb: A Quantitative Morphological Study / K. P. Bhatnagar, R. C. Kennedy, G. Baron et al // The Anatomical Record. - 1987. - Vol. 218. - Is. 1. - 73-87 pp.
46. Wikipedia. Epitalamus [Electronic resource].
- 2022. - URL: https://ru.wikipe-
dia.org/wiki/Эпиталамус (date of last access:
17.05.22)
47. Wikipedia. Talamus [Electronic resource]. -2022. - URL: https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Таламус (date of last access: 14.05.22)
48. Abitz M. Excess of Neurons in the Human Newborn Mediodorsal Thalamus Compared with That of the Adult / M. Abitz, R. D. Nielsen, E. G. Jones et al // Cerebral Cortex. - 2007. - Vol. 17. - Is. - 11. - 25732578 pp.
49. Wikipedia. Lateral geniculate nucleus [Electronic resource]. - 2022. - URL: https://en.wikipe-dia.org/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus (date of last access: 20.05.22)
50. Merkle F. T. Generation of Neuropeptidergic Hypothalamic Neurons from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells / F. T. Merkle, A. Maroof, T. Wataya et al // Development. - 2015. - Vol. 142(4). - 633-643 pp.
51. Vanderah T. W. Cerebellum / T. W. Vanderah, D. J. Gould // Nolte's The Human Brain. - 2021. - Ch. 20. - 469-494 pp.
52. Chien W. W. Physiology of the Auditory System / W. W. Chien, D. J. Lee // Cummings Otolaryngology: Head and Neck Surgery. - 2021. - Ch. 128. -1945-1957 pp.
53. Ken Hub. Corpora quadrigemina [Electronic
resource]. - 2022. - URL:
45
«CQyyOMUM-JOyrMaiL» #17(И4©), 2022 / MEDICAL SCIENCES
https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/corpora-quadrigemina (date of last access: 17.05.22)
54. Wikipedia. Superior colliculus [Electronic resource]. - 2022. - URL: https://en.wikipe-
dia.org/wiki/Superior_colliculus (date of last access:
23.05.22)
55. Standring Susan. Brainstem / S. Standing // Gray's Anatomy. - 2021. - Ch. 28. - 442-464 pp.
56. Wheatcroft T. Functional Organisation of the Mouse Superior Colliculus / T. Wheatcroft, A. Saleem,
S. G. Solomon // Frontiers in Neural Circuits. - 2022. -Vol. 16. - Art. 792959.
57. Batra R. Inferior Colliculus / R. Batra // Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences. - 2003. - 653656 pp.
58. Batra R. Inferior Colliculus / R. Batra // Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences (Second Edition). - 2014. - 692-694 pp.
59. Wikipedia. Goluboe pyatno [Electronic resource]. - 2022. - URL: https://www.en.wMpe-dia.org/wiki/Locus_coeruleus (date of last access:
14.05.22)
60. Sharma Y. Comparative Anatomy of the Locus Coeruleus in Humans and Non-Human Primates / Y. Sharma, T. Xu, W. Graf et al // The Journal of Comparative Neurology. - 2010. - Vol. 518. - Is. 7. - 963971 pp.
61. Brodal P. Organization of the Pontine Nuclei / P. Brodal, J. G. Bjaalie // Neuroscience Research. -1992. - Vol. 13. - Is. 2. - 83-118 pp.
62. Rahman M., Tadi P. Neuroanatomy, Pons
[Electronic resource]. - 2022. - URL:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560589 (date of last access: 20.05.22)
63. Chapter 5: Cerebellum [Electric resource]. -
2020. - URL: https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neurosci-
ence/m/s3/chapter05.html (date of last access:
18.05.22)
64. Kulesza Jr. R. J. Cytoarchitecture of the Human Superior Olivary Complex: Medial and Lateral Superior Olive / R. J. Kulesza Jr. // Hearing Research. - 2007. - Vol. 225. - Is. 1-2. - 80-90 pp.
65. Hilbig H. Superior Olivary Complex Organization and Cytoarchitecture May be Correlated with Function and Catarrhine Primate Phylogeny / H. Hilbig, B. Beil, H. Hilbig et al // Brain Structure and Function. - 2009. - Vol. 213. - 489-497 pp.
66. Schofield B. R. Subtypes of GABAergic Cells in the Inferior Colliculus / B. R. Schofield, N. L. Beebe // Hearing Research. - 2019. - Vol. 376. - 1-10 pp.
67. Wikipedia. Kletka Purkin'e [Electronic resource]. - 2022. - URL: https://ru.wMpe-
dia.org/wiki/^eTKa_nypraHbe (date of last access:
23.05.22)
68. Laughlin S. B. Communication in Neural Networks / S. B. Laughlin, T. J. Sejnowski // Science. -2003. - Vol. 301. - Is. 5641. - 1870-1874 pp.
69. Effects of Noise on the Spike Timing Precision of Retinal Ganglion Cells / M. C. W. van Rossum, B. J. O'Brien, R. G. Smith // Journal of Neurophysiology. - 2003. - Vol. 89. - Is. 5. - 2406-2419 pp.
70. Mountcastle V. B. The Columnar Organization of the Neocortex / V. B. Mountcastle // Brain. -1997. - Vol. 120. - Is. 4. - 701-722 pp.
71. Humans Perceive Flicker Artifacts at 500 Hz / J. Davis, Y.-H. Hsieh, H.-Ch. Lee // Scientific Reports.
- 2015. - Vol. 5. - Is. 1. - Art. 7861. DOI: 10.1038/srep07861
72. DiCarlo J. J. How does the Brain Solve Visual Object Recognition? / J. J. DiCarlo, D. Zoccolan, N. C. Rust // Neuron. - 2012. - Vol. 73. - Is. 3. - 415-434 pp. DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.01.010
73. Wikipedia. Visual cortex [Electronic resource]. - 2022. - URL: https://en.wikipe-
dia.org/wiki/Visual_cortex (date of last access:
07.06.22)
74. Braddick O. J. Brain Areas Sensitive to Coherent Visual Motion / O. J. Braddick, J. M. D. O'Brien, J. Wattam-Bell et al // Perceptron. - 2001. - Vol. 30. - Is.
1. - 61-72 pp.
75. Wikipedia. Brodmann area 37 [Electronic resource]. - 2021. - URL: https://en.wMpe-
dia.org/wiki/Brodmann_area_37 (date of last access:
15.06.22)
76. Schmuker M. Modeling Homogeneity Detection in Primate Visual Cortex with Spiking Neurons : diploma / M. Schmuker. - Freiburg im Breisgau : 2003.
- 64 p.
77. Vanni S. Anatomy and Physiology of Macaque Visual Cortical Areas V1, V2, and V5/MT: Bases for Biologically Realistic Model / S. Vanni, H. Hok-kanen, F. Werner et al // Cerebral Cortex. - 2020. - Vol. 30. - Is. 6. - 3483-3517 pp.
78. Akrami A. Converging Neuronal Activity in Inferior Temporal Cortex during the Classification of Morphed Stimuli / A. Akrami, Y. Liu, A. Treves et al // Cerebral Cortex. - 2009. - Vol. 19. - Is. 4. - 760-776
pp.
79. Role of Temporal Processing Stages by Inferior Temporal Neurons in Facial Recognition / Y. Sugase-Miyamoto, N. Matsumoto, K. Kawano // Frontiers in Psychology. - 2011. - Vol. 2. - Art. 141. - 8 p.
