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57Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences 10 (2019 12) 1904-1921
УДК 81'42: 81'38: 81'27
Information and Psychological War Linguistics
as a Research Project at the Siberian Federal University:
Problems and Achievements
Aleksandr P. Skovorodnikov*, Galina A. Kopnina and Anastasiia V. Kolmogorova
Siberian Federal University 79 Svobodny, Krasnoyarsk, 660041, Russia
Received 25.09.2019, received in revised form 02.10.2019, accepted 09.10.2019
The article discusses essential scientific problems within the scope of a young discipline "Information and Psychological War Linguistics" (IPW). These problems are based both on the analytical review of the scientific literature and on the authors' observations. The following most significant problems of the IPW are defined: definition of the Information and Psychological War; classifications of its aims and objectives that, as a rule, are implicit in the war discourse; relationship between the object and targets of the IPW; hierarchy of targets; definition and systematization of criteria which might be used in order to identify the IPW texts; methodology of these texts analysis; determination of the IPW genre specifics; and classification of its speech strategies and tactics. The paper clarifies the definitions of some terms: Information and Psychological War, Information and Psychological War Linguistics, the object and the target. The following criteria for identifying IPW texts are distinguished: 1) the public character of the text as a focus on the mass addressee's consciousness; 2) the inclusion of the text in one or another ideological discourse, characterized by its polemical nature and polarity of assessments; 3) the presence in a text of a socially significant political component related to the state power, government and / or people's economic welfare, which are negatively represented in the IPW; 4) the prevalence in a text of a defamatory evaluative modality as well as the presence or possibility of the appearance of a protective text with a predominant apologetic modality; 5) the presence in a text of some tools specific to the IPW language: practices of speech aggression and / or speech manipulation; 6) more or less long-term repeatability of defamatory assessments in relation to the same target; 7) propaganda of a new value system contradicting the traditional one. These criteria should be taken into account in conjunction. Likewise, there is a problem of changes in the Russian language under the influence of the IPW, including those of a terminological nature.
© Siberian Federal University. All rights reserved Corresponding author E-mail address: skapnat@mail.ru
ORCID: 0000-0002-0171-596X (Skovorodnikov); 0000-0001-9883-3892 (Kopnina); 0000-0002-6425-2050 (Kolmogorova)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0).
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Keywords: Information and Psychological War, Information and Psychological War Linguistics, impact object, impact targets, criteria of the Information and Psychological War texts identification, language tools of the Information and Psychological War.
Research area: language theory.
Citation: Skovorodnikov, A.P., Kopnina, G.A., Kolmogorova, A.V. (2019). Information and psychological war linguistics as a research project at the Siberian Federal University: problems and achievements. J. Sib. Fed. Univ. Humanit. Soc. Sci., 12(10), 1904-1921. DOI: 10.17516/1997-1370-0495.
Introduction
The relevance of the research. It is argued that "information wars are widespread all over the world, involving everything from scanners in supermarkets and standards to television networks and technological nationalism. A general information collision is brewing" (Gurevich, 2003: 15). Prerequisites for the study of information wars are being created, including information and psychological ones, in various aspects. The least studied nowadays is a linguistic aspect of information and psychological wars (further — IPW). This aspect turns out to be one of the most demanded for solving the problem of the national security in the society and in the state.
The forgoing determines the significance of the IPW linguistics. Its current problems are focused upon in this paper. We consider the IPW linguistics as a branch of modern political linguistics that studies the specifics of using the language as a means of information and psychological confrontation resulting from a conflict of interests and/or ideologies. This confrontation is carried out by the attacks on vulnerable points in the opponent's minds in order to change the picture of the world and the ideology which shapes his/her social, political, and economic systems (Gunneriusson, 2017: 36). The IPW linguistics has a great future, as information wars, according to the scholars, express an extreme degree of conflict of interests (Baskerville, 2010: 2). This conflict is inherent in the humanity, and the conception of a neutral information norm aiming at the formation of an alternative to an information war ends in a fiasco in practice when it has to resist the information attacks (Wagnsson, Hellman, 2018).
Prerequisites for the appearance of the IPW linguistics are contained in some Russian and foreign studies of language as a means of ideological confrontation.
Prehistory of the IPW linguistics. Without exhaustive description of the IPW linguistics history we should admit that a great role in language learning as a tool of psychological impact for political purposes belongs not only to Russian researchers, but also to foreign scholars of the discourse-analysis. Researchers of the French school
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of the political discourse-analysis try to answer a key question on the role of the language as a means of actualizing the structures of the unconscious (M. Pecheux well-known terms (Pecheux, 1975) "oblivion 1, oblivion 2" speak for themselves). Such means are used to form and consolidate the patterns of social behavior that benefit certain political forces, especially in a totalitarian state (Seriot, 1989). Considering the language as a "building material" for ideological structures that provide political elites with the reproduction and maintenance of their power was developed in terms of the Western critical discourse-analysis paradigm (Dijk, 1989; Wodak, 1989), while in the USSR it was the linguistic aspect of the ideological confrontation that was studied (Iazyk, ideologiia, politika, 1982; Iazyk i ideologiia, 1987; Desheriev, 1984).
The conceptual basis of the study. In the analytical review we proceed from the concept outlined in the monograph (Bernatskaia, Evseeva, Kolmogorova at al., 2017), which is thought to develop a relatively new branch of studies in political linguistics — the IPW linguistics. Its conceptual justification is based on the theory, firstly, of political linguistics regarding the language as a means of a race for political power and manipulation of public consciousness (Budaev, Chudinov, 2008: 3; Fairclough, 1995; etc.), secondly, of the philosophy of war that views a war as confrontation of parties with different interests and spiritual values (Kersnovskii, 2010; Otyutskii, 2010; Schmitt, 2012; etc), thirdly, of the psychology of war considering the conditions for the effectiveness of psychological impact (Karaiani, Zinchenko, 2007; Anderson, Glass and Bernicci, 1966; Gilgen and Gilgen, 1997; etc.). The concept of the IPW linguistics has its own terminology and problems for the research.
Statement of a scientific problem and research methodology. This article is primarily aimed at legitimization of the IPW linguistics as an autonomous branch of political linguistics. For this purpose, the following methods were used: philosophical analytical method that determines a general research strategy and general scientific methods of systematization and critical analysis of the problem research field.
Discussion
The problem of the IPW definition. According to the logic, an obligatory requirement for a scientific definition lies in indicating the generic identity of a concept. Generally speaking, determination of the IPW generic identity does not cause problems. It is more or less generally accepted to distinguish two types of information wars: 1) an information-technical war, also called a technical war, or cyber-war (Semkin, 2015: 37; Jacobs, Chitkushev, Zlateva, 2015); 2) an information-psychological war, also called
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a psychological war (Smirnov, 2013: 86), or a psycho-physical war (Veprintsev et al., 2015: 83-85) that might be latent (Floridi, 2014). Taking everything into account we conclude that the IPW is a type of an information war.
Identification of the IPW specific characteristics seems to be much more complicated, since the emphasis on some of its characteristics depends on a researcher's scientific interests and aspects of the study. Some researchers include subjects of confrontation and its technological aspect in their definition; others do not. Many definitions cover the aim of impact while the causes of the IPW are not mentioned. For example:
• "Information-psychological war might be defined as an extensive use of means and methods of information-psychological impact in relation to a country's population, certain social groups or individuals, or protection against similar actions carried out by the state or another actor of international policy to ensure the realization of their interests" (Smirnov, 2013: 86);
• "Psychological war can be considered as a struggle between the states and their armed forces to achieve superiority in the spiritual sphere and to turn this advantage into a decisive factor of victory over the enemy" (Efremov et al., 2000: 63);
• "Psychological war is a combination of various forms, methods and means of impact on people in order to change their psychological characteristics (views, opinions, value orientations, moods, motives, attitudes, stereotypes of behavior) in the desired direction, as well as group norms, mass sentiment, public consciousness in general" (Krys'ko, 1999).
Many researchers do not seek to strictly define this concept, they just generally describe it. For instance, talking about the IPW, S. V. Tkachenko claims: "The point of an information war is to cause a serious cultural trauma to the population of a certain country. This is "a violent, unexpected, repressive introduction of values that drastically contradict traditional views and value scales", that leads to the destruction of cultural time and space, and, therefore, those spiritual foundations, which form the basis for any society. < ..> An information war is, first of all, the invasion of certain ideas that destroy the national self-awareness of a whole nation. This is particularly its strategy" (Tkachenko, 2011: 8-9).
In the above listed descriptions and definitions of the IPW the role of the language in an information-psychological impact is not mentioned. This lacuna is filled in with our definition: the IPW is an opposition of the parties, which arises because of conflicts of interests and/or ideologies and is carried out by a deliberate impact with a help of language means on the enemy's consciousness (nation or any of its strata) for cognitive
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suppression and/or submission, as well as with a help of some measures of information-psychological protection against the opposite party.
The problem of classifying the IPW aims and objectives. The large heterogeneity of specific IPW aims, mentioned in the literature, makes it difficult to classify them. We are going to list only some specific aims and objectives of the IPW and divide them into some groups according to different spheres:
1) in the political sphere: formation of a negative attitude towards the authorities (discredit of governing bodies, state leaders) and "dismantling of the political regime" (Karpovich, Manoilo, 2015: 3); imposition of false goals in the sphere of management, ideological expansion (Panarin, 2010: 12-23); promotion of their agents to power structures (Tsyganov, Bukharin, 2007: 15); interception of control by media capture (Pocheptsov, 2015: 7); destabilization of the domestic political situation in the country, stimulation of "orange revolutions", fostering a split between powerful political groups fighting for power (Volkovskii, 2003: 521); demonization of the enemy country (Normand, 2016);
2) in the economic sphere: the seizure of the country's material resources under the guise of caring for the people and prosperity of the country (Korovin, 2014: 22), colonization of the country;
3) in the social sphere: incitement of hostility among different groups in order to weaken the society (Lisichkin, Shelepin, 2005: 25); propaganda of same-sex marriages in order to reduce the birth rate (Samokhvalova, 2011: 66);
4) in the spiritual spheres:
a) religion: provoking and fomenting confessional conflicts and wars (Krys'ko, 1999: 82); carrying out the reforms resulting in a schism (Tsekhanskaia, 2013);
b) morality: formation of a scornful attitude towards one's own country (Beliaev, 2014: 5, 9); propaganda of false values, in particular cruelty, deviant sexual behavior, consumer attitude to life (materialism) (Berkovich, 2015);
c) culture, art: discredit and destruction of national culture, popularization of ersatz culture (Brusnitsyn, 2001: 151);
d) education: stimulating the qualified professionals' outflow from an enemy country (mass production of "international nomads") (Samokhvalova, 2002), creating a priority in the study of foreign languages in comparison with the native state language, cultivating alienation from the native language and culture (Shaposhnikova, 2018: 175); introduction of one-sided ideological (not in favor of the target country) teaching of humanities (philology, philosophy, history, cultural studies etc.) (Citron, 1989), ideas
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of non-binding role of humanities for successful economic activity (Granovskii, 2009: 87); elimination of the educational (worldview) component in the learning process (Bagdasarian, 2018);
e) science: distortion, tarnishing the country's history, its scientific and technical achievements (Brusnitsyn, 2001: 151), discrediting the heroes of the Russian history (Artamonov, 2011).
Understanding the IPW aims and obj ectives is of a great significance for determining the opposing parties' communicative intentions in specific speech situations.
The problem of the relationship between the IPW object and the IPW target.
The concepts of the object and the target of the information-psychological impact are not always clearly demarcated (Bezlepkin, 2018). For example, V. A. Barishpolets writes that the main targets of the information-psychological impact are individual, mass, group and public consciousness. However, the scholar considers a person, his/ her psyche and organism as the central object of the information-psychological impact (Barishpolets, 2013: 70). We believe that the concepts of the IPW object and the target can and should be differentiated. The object of the IPW is the consciousness of a person or the society, whereas the target is "those mental structures that are influenced by the initiator of the impact and change according to the purpose of the impact" (Dotsenko, 2000: 122). There can be the following targets: images in the national consciousness of phenomena, occurrences, events, institutions and establishments, as well as the concepts and views associated with them, the attitude to which forms the framework of the social group's value picture of the world. Turning to the IPW, which is conducted against Russia, we can distinguish the following types of targets: the Russian language as the national identity carrier, the memory of the Great Patriotic War, family values and orthodoxy, the concept of the educational system. In other words, the targets are the mental structures of consciousness serving as a kind of triggers that stimulate various models of social behavior of a person, a group or the society in general.
The problem of the criteria for IPW texts identification. Taking into account the analysis of special literature, we formulate the following generalized criteria, the combination of which allows us to qualify texts, regardless of their functional or genre nature, as an information-psychological weapon.
1. The public nature of the text as a focus on the multiple recipients' consciousness.
Since any war implies a large number of victims, various methods are used to inform the collective object, the ways applied to enhance its impacting potential being different. For example, ideological utterances are put into the mouths of the
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representatives of political or military elite, culture, etc., that is opinion leaders are highlighted.
2. Inclusion of the text in one or another ideological discourse, characterized by polemical character and polarity of assessments.
IPW is always a "struggle of ideologies" (Laclau, Mouffe, 1985), "spiritual opposition of values, moral motives, religious feelings etc." (Skvortsov, 2015). According to Van Dijk, in order to win the IPW it is absolutely essential to introduce the "ideological square" into mass consciousness, the "ideological square" reflecting the polarization strategy implemented by four tactics:
1) emphasizing one's own positive characteristics / actions;
2) emphasizing the opponent's negative characteristics / actions;
3) mitigating one's own negative characteristics /actions;
4) mitigating the opponent's positive characteristics / actions (Dijk, 1998: 33).
3. The presence of the topics concerning authorities, government and/or the people's economic welfare that are represented in a discrediting evaluation mode with its potential to cause a protective text with a predominant apologetic mode.
A. A. Bernatskaia mentions the following IPW signs: the presence of a socio-political component in the content structure ofthe text as well as "exclusively or at least predominantly negative mode of presenting the foundations of the state: national history, national identity of the ethnos, its language, beliefs, values, state symbols, domestic and foreign policy of the state, its international image; the most important achievements in various areas of material and spiritual production, outstanding state, public, cultural and historical personalities — everything that constitutes the national pride of the citizens of the country and ensures the sustainability of the state's existence" (Bernatskaia, 2016: 242-243).
In the IPW texts a negative mode has a defamatory character; a positive mode — an apologetic, or praising one. Informational attacks are carried out within the "polarized discourse". Western scholars define political polarization as the "movement away from the centre towards the extremes" in political preferences (Fiorina, Abrams, Pope, 2008: 567). The polarized discourse promotes stereotypical ideas about the opponent, denigrates the opponent's reputation and, thus, contributes to the division of the society into two groups — in-groups and out-groups (Eissa et al., 2014).
4. The presence of some IPW-specific language tools: speech aggression and or speech manipulation strategies.
The IPW is a type of aggression aimed at an explicit or implicit impact on public consciousness. Therefore, verbal aggression and manipulation are an integral part of
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its technology. Moreover, it is possible to "disguise the aggressor's image and present it as a disinterested "savior" of the country from the vices of the former "totalitarian" way of life" (Vasilenko, 2009: 159).
It is argued that "the politics is always a struggle for power and in this struggle the winner is usually the one who has better communicative tools and is able to create in the addressee's mind a picture of the world the manipulator needs" (Budaev, Chudinov, 2006: 19). At the same time, the power of manipulation is "insidious" as the recipient of the text, while following the manipulator's itinerary, interprets the message by him/ herself (Kolmogorova, Taldykina, Kalinin, 2017: 195).
6. More or less long-term repeatability of defamatory evaluations (towards the same target).
When a situation is considered an information war, it is primarily the quantitative criteria that are based on. Thus, Igor Nikolaichuk, an employee of the Centre for Defense Studies of the Russian Institute for Strategic Studies, said in his interview: "If the number of negative publications per time unit is five times more than the number of neutral ones, then the situation is viewed as an information war" (Indeks agressivnosti, 2014). We believe that in order to regard a situation as an information war it is sufficient to see the predominance of the discrediting texts over the neutral and positive ones. In addition, it should be noted that discredit might not be continuous, but dispersed and served in small portions: "They [radio programs] raise urgent problems and, at first sight, everything is said correctly and there are no contradictions with the reality. However, some phrases, remarks, comments, aired in the right place and with a necessary stress, are pouring a deadly poison into the radio listeners' consciousness drop by drop, the poison implicitly attacking the Russian people's souls" (Gretsev, 2016).
7. Propaganda of the new value system that contradicts the traditional one.
The attack on values is a bright sign of the IPW. It is aimed at "weakening the people's connection, depriving them of collective memory, common language and coordinate system that it possible to distinguish between good and evil, the limit being the dismantling the central worldview matrix used to assemble and reproduce the people. If that works, the people crumble like a pile of sand" (Kara-Murza, 2010: 115).
The problem of the IPW text analysis. Since IPW texts may belong to the ideological discourse of various functions and topics (it can be either a journalistic or a literary text with a certain aesthetic function), the methodology of critical discourse analysis for analyzing the political discourse is insufficient. When working
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with such texts the method of linguo-ideological analysis is of great efficiency. It is aimed at defining the ideological content of the text and the axiological function of ideologemes used in the text (ideologemes are particular concepts comprising "the native speakers' collective, often stereotypical and even mythologized ideas and views about power, state, nation, society, political and ideological institutions" (Malysheva, 2009: 35) expressed in the language). The method implies identification and semantic description of ideologemes, that "cement" the IPW text, through analyzing the composition, stylistic techniques, intertextual chains, semantics and pragmatics of the key words in the text, the nature and change of presuppositions in it. This method is designed to answer the following questions: What are the object and the target of the IPW in the text? What is the nature of the impact on these object and target? What are linguistic tools of organizing this impact? (The experience of using linguo-ideological analysis of a literary text is represented, for instance, in A. A. Bernatskaia's article (Bernatskaia, 2016).
The problem of genre specificity of the IPW texts, their ethos and pathos.
The common intention of the IPW texts is to have a deforming or destructive effect on the value picture of the world of some national, linguistic and cultural community, regarded as an ideological opponent. However, their genre diversity is practically unlimited except, perhaps, one criterion — the genre format should provide an opportunity to intensively express ethos and pathos. Dating back to the ancient rhetorical tradition, both concepts are connected with the cognitive foundations of the discourse influencing power. The first implies the "image of the speaker" as an image constructed by him/herself with the help of the manner of speaking, communicative behavior, and image, in general (Maingueneau, 1999), as well as the image already shaped in the listeners' minds due to previous experience and knowledge (Charaudeau, 2005). Pathos implies the discourse organization contributing to the awakening of the recipient's feeling and emotions that result in the adoption of the speaker's viewpoint and position (Charaudeau, 2000: 125-126).
Among literary genres, the most favorable for the development of ethos and pathos in the artistic discourse is a novel. Nevertheless, some comic genres (anecdote, for example) are also involved in the IPW. The visual format of the art (cinema) as well as film reviews can also be considered as an IPW instrument. All the types of newspaper genres have the IPW elements: informational, analytical, literary, and journalistic. However, pamphlet, feuilleton and satirical commentary are the most suitable genres for conducting the IPW. In the Internet and media environment there are such genres
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as a comment or a blog post, a publication in the social network, interviews, a political commercial, and a creolized caricature text. Likewise, there are the phenomena with a different linguistic status (genre, form of communication, etc.): rumors, gossips, stuffing, fakes, memes etc.
The study of tropes and figures of speech aimed at the formation of one or another pathos in the IPW, is urgent.
The problem of the IPW speech strategies and tactics classification. Existing classifications of speech strategies and tactics are designed by most researchers outside the context of the IPW. For the IPW linguistics, the significant studies are those that discuss the strategies and tactics of verbal aggression (Mikhal'skaia, 1996: 159-171; Shcherbinina, 2004; Petrova, Ratsiburskaia, 2011, et al.), verbal manipulation (Rudinow, 1978; Riker, 1986; Newman et. al., 2003, et al.), and speech discrediting (Ruzhentseva, 2004, et al.). In many studies the tactics are often listed but not analyzed.
We claim that the IPW main speech strategies are of two types: the strategy of negative other-presentation and the strategy of positive self-presentation. The former is a speech behaviour based on verbal aggression and verbal killing as its extreme manifestation, defamation and misinformation and on other verbal actions aimed at harming the opponent. The latter is based on self-glorification, apologetics as one of its manifestations, and other types of speech complementarity.
These strategies identified on the basis of the archetypically opposed categories of "we" and "others" are typical for both sides: the attacking and the defending ones. In this regard, they are universal. Speech tactics that implement various strategies can be classified differently. This is due to the researcher's objective. Thus, they are classified on the basis of impact targets, the degree of manifestation of the negative or the positive, etc.
Conclusion
Thus, seven major problems of the IPW linguistics are outlined and should be solved in order to contribute to the development of this research area: 1) the problem of the IPW definition; 2) the problem of determining the IPW aims and objectives implicit in the IPW discourse; 3) the problem of the relationship between the IPW object and the IPW target; 4) the problem of the criteria for IPW texts identification; 5) the problem of the methodology for the IPW texts analysis; 6) the problem of the IPW genre specificity; 7) the problem of the IPW speech strategies and tactics classification. Studying the language of such communicative forms as stuffing, rumors, etc., as well
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as extensive various language tools is also essential. These issues might become the subject of specific scientific researches.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank:
- the leadership of Siberian Federal University and Institute of Philology and Language Communication for supporting the "Linguistics of Information and Psychological War" project;
- the "Universitetskaia kniga" analytical journal and National Research Tomsk State University for the recognition of the book "Linguistics of Information and Psychological War. Book I" as "the best scientific publication in the philological sciences" at the VIII All-Russian competition of university publications "Universitetskaia kniga — 2018".
- the Association of Russian Publishers "ASKI" for the inclusion of "Linguistics of Information and Psychological War. Book I" in the list of "50 best regional publications" according to the results of the ASKI competition "The Best Books of 2017".
- Dalian University of Foreign Languages, Ural State Pedagogical University and the editorial staff of the "Political Linguistics" journal for awarding the authors of "Linguistics of Information and Psychological War. Book I" with the diploma (II place) of the International Competition of Scientific Publications "One belt, One Road. Linguistics of Interaction (2017)".
We appreciate your support.
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Лингвистика информационно-психологической войны как научно-исследовательский проект в Сибирском федеральном университете: проблематика и достижения
А. П. Сковородников, Г. А. Копнина, А. В. Колмогорова
Сибирский федеральный университет Россия, 660041, Красноярск, пр. Свободный, 79
Статья посвящена определению научных проблем, которые актуальны в свете становления молодой дисциплины «Лингвистика информационно-психологической войны» (ИПВ). Эти проблемы намечаются на основе как аналитического обзора научной литературы, так и собственных наблюдений авторов этой статьи. Выделены следующие наиболее значимые проблемы лингвистики ИПВ: дефинирование информационно-психологической войны; классификации ее целей и задач, как правило, присутствующих в дискурсе войны имплицитно; соотношение объекта и мишеней ИПВ и иерархии последних; определение и систематизация критериев, по которым можно идентифицировать тексты ИПВ; методика анализа этих текстов; определение жанровой специфики ИПВ; классификации ее речевых стратегий и тактик. В статье уточняются дефиниции некоторых терминов: информационно-психологическая война, лингвистика информационно-психологической войны, объект и мишень воздействия. Выделяются критерии идентификации текстов ИПВ, которые должны учитываться в совокупности: 1) публичный характер текста как ориентированность на сознание множественного адресата; 2) включенность текста в тот или иной идеологический дискурс, характеризующийся полемичностью и полярностью оценок; 3) наличие в тексте социально значимого политического компонента, имеющего отношение к государственной власти, управлению и/или экономическому положению народа, которые в ИПВ характеризуются негативно; 4) преобладание в тексте дискредитирующего оценочного модуса и наличие или возможность появления защищающего текста с преобладанием апологитирующего модуса; 5) наличие в тексте специфического для ИПВ языкового инструментария: приемов речевой агрессии и/или речевой манипуляции; 6) более или менее длительная повторяемость дискредитирующих оценок в отношении одной и той же мишени; 7) пропаганда в тексте новой системы ценностей, противоречащей традиционным. Намечается проблема изменений в русском языке под влиянием ИПВ, в том числе терминологического характера.
Ключевые слова: информационно-психологическая война, лингвистика информационно-психологической войны, объект воздействия, мишень воздействия, критерии идентификации текстов информационно-психологической войны, языковой инструментарий информационно-психологической войны.
Научная специальность: 10.02.19 — теория языка.
