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15УДК 9.94
Научная статья
ИСТОРИЯ ОСМАНСКОЙ ИМПЕРИИ
Капышев А.К., Кенжетаева У. Е. Кокшетауский университет имени Абая Мырзахметова (г. Кокшетау, Республика Казахстан)
Аннотация. В статье рассматривается история возникновения и развития Османской империи. Излагается его политико-экономическое положение и история на каждом этапе. Рассказывается, как он стал местом слияния различных культур и традиций. Отражаются внутренние и внешние, культурные особенности государства, которое когда-то было одной из крупнейших империй. В статье часто излагаются политические обстоятельства последних периодов Османской империи.
Ключевые слова: Османская империя, исторический период, историческая ситуация, состояние государства, гражданская война, внешняя политика.
Для цитирования: Капышев, А.К. История османской империи/ А.К. Капышев, У.Е. Кенжетаева //Наука и реальность. -2022. - № 4 (12). - С. 4651.
HISTORY OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
Kapyshev A.K., Kenzhetayeva U. E. Kokshetau University named after Abai Myrzakhmetov (Kokshetau, Republic of Kazakhstan)
Annotation. The article examines the history of the emergence and development of the Ottoman Empire. It describes its political and economic situation and history at each stage. It tells how it became a place of fusion of different cultures and traditions. The internal and external, cultural features of the state, which was once one of the largest empires, are reflected. The article often describes the political circumstances of the last periods of the Ottoman Empire.
Keywords: Ottoman Empire, historical period, historical situation, state of the state, civil war, foreign policy
For quoting: Kapyshev, A.K. History of the Ottoman Empire / A.K. Kapyshev, U.E. Kenzhetayeva // Science & Reality. - 2022. - № 4 (12). - P. 46-51.
There is a legend about the emergence of the Ottoman Empire at the end of the XV century. In 1299, the future first Sultan Osman spent the night in the House of one Muslim righteous man. The ruler had a dream: the moon came out of the owner's chest and passed into the Ottoman's chest, and then a huge tree grew out of it, covering the whole world with its shadow. In the morning, the righteous man interpreted this color as follows: Osman was chosen, and God gave him and his descendants great power. In fact, the events were as follows. In Asia Minor (Anatolian peninsula) lived many Turkic tribes that competed with each other for land and periodically attacked Byzantium. The strongest of these tribes were the Seljuk Turks, who moved from Central Asia to Anatolia [1, 17].
In 1071, the Seljuks defeated the Byzantine army under Malazgirt. In the next century, the Seljuks lived on the peninsula, established trade ties, appropriated the lands of their weaker neighbors and spread Islam in Asia Minor, which was initially Christian. In the XIII century, the Mongol invasion of Anatolia changed the layout of forces - the Seljuks conquered the Mongol Ilkhanid dynasty. But the Mongols were not as strong here as in Central Asia and Siberia, so their empire in Anatolia began to rapidly collapse, and small Turkic Emirates were formed in its place. Among these small states, something quickly stood out, led by a man named Osman. In 1301, he managed to defeat the Byzantine troops at the Battle of BAFA. It is not yet known to historians the details of Ottoman life and whether he was the leader of the Turkic world. However, he became the founder of the great empire [1, 43].
Starting from the fourteenth century, in the seventeenth century, the latter, together with its vassal states, covered the territory from the Balkans and Crimea in the north to the Arabian Peninsula and the Maghreb in the south, including Asia Minor and the Levant. The Sultan ruled the country from Constantinople (now Istanbul), which was conquered in 1453. After the unsuccessful siege of Vienna (1683), the Ottoman Empire was forced to defend the west of the Balkans, threatened by Austria, and in the 18th century, Russia also had to fight against the European colonial powers and national movements in the Black Sea region in the 19th century, for example, thanks to the support received in Greece, where a new state was created in 1830, but also in Switzerland.In 1878, Serbia, Romania and Bosnia also separated from Constantinople. In the first World War, the Ottoman Empire, headed by the committee of Young Turks, sided with the Central Empires. The defeat of 1918 was its end, although the Sultan's government, which gradually lost its powers, remained in place until the fall of 1922.
Since the emergence of the Ottoman Empire, "Turkey" in Europe refers to the territories of the Balkans and the Middle East, subject to Ottoman domination. The term" Turkish " was often used as a synonym for Muslim (Turkish or non-Turkish); in the Ottoman Empire itself, it indicated that the villagers were not treated. It was only at the beginning of the twentieth century that Turkish nationalists adopted two concepts to define their ethnic group and the newly formed Republic [2, 19].
The Treaty of Lausanne (1923), which changed the Treaty of Sevres (1920), limited the territory of the Republic of Turkey to Asia Minor and part of Thrace. In 1923, Ankara became the new capital. The dominant political force was a single Kemalist party, whose doctrine combined the forced modernization of the country and fierce nationalism. Anatolia was politically, culturally and economically Turkified. The so-called secularism excluded Islam from politics and law, and religious customs were placed under state control. The new unitary state granted cultural rights to non-Muslim minorities that still existed after 1923, especially in Istanbul, but it did not give the Kurds autonomy or recognition as a cultural minority (Kurdistan), the largest non-Turkish ethnic group. In foreign policy during the interwar period, Turkey initially turned to the Soviet Union, which in the first years of its existence helped in the fight against the Greeks (1920-1921).
Turkey, which remained neutral in World War II, turned to the West in 1945 and joined NATO in 1952. The economic assistance of the West, the multi-party system that brought the Democratic Party to the government in 1950, and the opening of schools in Central and eastern Anatolia also gave new dynamism. Most of the rural population migrated to the city centers. In the late 1950s, after a temporary period of development and democratization, the country was in a protracted economic and political crisis, which led to military coups (1960s, 1971 and 1980s), and in the 1970s to a close situation. to the Civil War [3, 51]. Right and left polarization, the ethno-national concept of the state governing military and military roles. A non-liberal approach to religious and ethnic identity (especially Kurds) remained one of the controversial issues that remained unresolved. Since 2003, the government has been headed by Recep Tayyip Erdogan, the leader of the Justice and Development Party (Moderate Islam), who managed to reduce the role of the army in the process of approaching the European Union.
One of the earliest surviving records of ties between the Confederation and Turkey is a letter to the "Swiss empire" in 1581, in which Benedict Angelus, Secretary of the Ottoman court, verbally responded to a proposal for an alliance between the two countries. Since the end of the sixteenth century, some Confederates have remained in Constantinople, such as Hans Jacob Scherer (1612), The Doctor of Talvil, Johann Rudolf Schmid von Schwarzenhorn, Steinam Rhine, the emperor's ambassador to the Ottoman court (1629-1643 and 1643, 1648-1654) and Jacques Kahod (since 1697), the Missionary of Traivo. In the XVII and XVIII centuries, Geneva was the only important group of watchmakers, about a quarter of which were under the protection of a French overseas colony.
The number of Swiss citizens living in Constantinople and Anatolia only increased in the 19th century, but was always below 1,000. In addition to entrepreneurs, merchants and skilled workers, ordinary workers also migrated from Switzerland. The Helvetia Mutual Aid Society, founded in 1857 in Constantinople to support the needy Swiss, was an important place of socialization. The latter was joined by the Union Suisse, also established in Istanbul in 1919, which carried out some consular tasks and asked the Federal Council to open a representative office. Around 1860, Georg Krug, director of a silk factory in Amasia, tried to combine the management of the factory with the creation of a German-speaking community and a Protestant mission.
However, the long-term missionary and humanitarian service only developed by 1900 with work to help Armenians, in which Josephine Folscher-Zurcher, Jakob Kunzler, Andreas Vischer and Beatrice Ronner were in active roles. Of particular importance were their data on the Armenian massacres of 1909 and especially in 1915-1916.
In the later Ottoman Empire, the influence of the Swiss economic, humanitarian and religious spheres was abundant, but not diplomatic. As it did not have diplomatic representation, its citizens benefited from consular protection by the European powers and legal privileges codified in treaties signed by the latter, known as capitulation.
At the end of the nineteenth century, Switzerland became a place of training and political propaganda for the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire (Bulgarians and Armenians), and later for Muslims and exiles belonging to the Ottoman youth and the Young Turks movement. At the beginning of the twentieth century, colleges and universities in French-speaking Switzerland were among the most visited foreign study centers by Muslim Turkish-speaking students. In 1911, Turkish foyers were established at the Universities of Geneva and Lausanne, whose members advocated secular nationalism; Among them were future leading representatives of the Kemalist civil administration in the interwar period, such as the Minister of Economy Mahmut Esat Bozkurt (1922-1923) and Justice (1924-1930), §ukru Sarachoglu, Minister of Finance (1927-1930 and 1933-1938) and Prime Minister (1942-1946) and Cemal Husnu Taray, Minister of Education (1942-1946)-as well, many parliamentarians and high - ranking officials. These lobbies supported the regime of the Young Turks during World War I and in 1918 became the epicenter of nationalist unrest against Greek and Armenian claims over parts of Asia Minor. Since 1920, they have been in the service of the nationalist government of Ankara against the government of the Sultan of Istanbul. The Liberal opposition to the regime of Young Turks, whose leaders (Prince Sabahaddin, Kemal Midhat, Suleiman Nazif and Lutfi Fikri) fled to Switzerland and were close to the Sultan's government since 1919, lost popularity after the outbreak of the Greek War. Between 1918 and 1922 it was the center of Lausanne [4, 72].
Swiss recognition of the Ankara government, which abolished the Sultanate and overthrew its Istanbul counterpart (11.11.1922) actually took place in the summer of 1923 and was beneficial for both countries, especially since Switzerland represented Turkish interests in those years. In Germany, Austria, Hungary and Romania. To protect its economic interests, after 1923, the Confederation, which never had representation in the Ottoman Empire or was one of the countries that signed the Treaty of Lausanne, was forced to act at the diplomatic level; The treaty actually destroyed the Ottoman capitulations, from which Swiss citizens also benefited significantly through the embassies of the great powers. The result of these efforts was the Treaty of friendship (1925) with the Treaty on the most mutually acceptable nation, the diplomatic mission (1926), as well as the arbitration agreement and the establishment of the Swiss legation (1928, embassy since 1953) in Ankara. In 1930, a commercial agreement and a residence agreement were also concluded [5, 119].
Due to the difficult situation of the young state, weakened by decades of wars, and the exclusion of the majority of the non-Muslim population, which previously had an important role in the economic sphere, and its protectionist policy during this period remained modest but stable, with the volume of commercial exchanges of several million francs. for both import and export per year. On the contrary, until 1923, Swiss imports (agricultural products) were significantly lower than exports (textiles, watches, machines, chemical and pharmaceutical products, chocolate, cheeses). The world economic crisis of 1929 led to a fall in prices for agricultural products, the main export goods of Turkey, which, as a result, negatively affected the Turkish currency.
As a result of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, Turkish domination in the Balkans was severely hit. In the north of Bulgaria, the Principality of Bulgaria was formed, only officially under the rule of the Sultan, Southern Bulgaria became an autonomous province, Serbia, Montenegro and Romania were recognized as completely independent. A number of territories went to Russia. In 1881, France occupied Tunisia, in 1878 Britain — Cyprus and in 1882— Egypt. In 1897, the island of Crete was actually annexed to Greece. In this case, the approach of the Ottoman Empire with Germany, which was waiting for its entry into the Middle East, began. Germany received a concession in 1888 that allowed the construction of the Baghdad railway to begin.
By the end of the century, the Ottoman Empire had a stable reputation as a "sick person", on whose bed sat "heirs" who argued about the division of the property of a dying person. The division of the Ottoman heritage was considered a matter of time. But the Empire existed until 1920.
Bibliographic list
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Библиографический спсисок
1. Линднер, Руди П. кочевники и османы в Средневековой Анатолии. - Блумингтон: издательство Университета Индианы. - 2008.
2. Шоу Э., Стэнфорд Дж. История Османской империи и современной Турции. Том I. - Империя газиса: расцвет и Падение Османской империи 1290-1808 гг. - Cambridge University Press. - 197б. - 540 С.
3.Инальчик, Халил, Кватерт, Дональд. История Османской империи 13GG-1914 гг.-Т: экономическое и социальное издание. - 1995. - 226 С.
4. Стэнфорд Дж., Эзель Курал Шоу. История Османской империи и современной Турции. Реформа, революция и республика: подъем современной Турции, 1808-1975. -Amazon.com, 1977. - 268 С.
5. Финдли, Картер В. бюрократическая реформа в Османской империи: высокий Порт, 1789-1922 гг. - Princeton University Press. - 198G. - 352 с.
6. Бейн, Амит. Османские улемы, Турецкая Республика: агенты перемен и хранители традиций. Amazon.com. 2011.
Капышев Ардак Кайыржанович, кандидат исторических наук, ассоциированный профессор, проректор по научной работе, Кокшетауский университет им. Абая Мырзахметова. (г.Кокшетау, Республика Казахстан)
Кенжетаева Улбала Елубаевна, магистрант, Кокшетауский университет им. Абая Мырзахметова. (г.Кокшетау, Республика Казахстан)
: k.ulbala@mail.ru
Дата поступления: 05.12.2022
© Капышев А.К., Кенжетаева У.Е., 2022
