CC BY
0
Вестник Томского государственного университета. Культурология и искусствоведение.
2023. № 52. С. 130-143. Tomsk State University Journal of Cultural Studies and Art History. 2023. 52. pp. 130-143.
Original article УДК 72
doi: 10.17223/22220836/52/11
HERITAGE OF MEDIEVAL ANATOLIAN TURKISH ARCHITECTURE: FROM PAST TO FUTURE
Caner Turan
Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Istanbul, Turkey, cinokoturan@yahoo.com
Abstract. Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture is the result of the passion to create architectural space for functional and artistic purposes in Anatolian lands in the historical phase that emerged after the 1071 Battle of Malazgirt. In fact, it would be a much more correct approach to evaluate this passion not as a result but as a process. After the commanders declared their independence in the regions given to them because of serving in the Great Saljuq army, the Artukids, Saltukids, Danishmends and Mengujeks were established as the Early Turkish Principalities. These principalities synthesize several architectural elements in Central Asia, the elements being confronted on the way from Central Asia to Anatolia and currently existing elements in Anatolia together with the structural features of the neighboring states. They built many architectural structures such as mosque, madrasah, bridge, caravansary, shrine, and cupola. In this study, the typical characteristics of the Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture, the sources that feed it and its specific aspects will be examined by making references to the structures built by the above-mentioned principalities. Since most of the legacy left by these principalities is still standing, it gives us important clues in terms of understanding the architectural aesthetics that prevailed at that time. When all these considered together, it is possible to mention about the existence of a Renaissance in the architectural field in Anatolia in the course of Middle Ages.
Keywords: Middle Age, Anatolia, Architecture, History, Art, Mosque, Madrasah, Cultural Heritage
Acknowledgement. I would like to thank some scholars for their useful suggestions on earlier versions of the article, as well as Prof. Dr. Nurcan Yazici MET1N for her contribution to draw the general framework of the subject.
For citation: Turan, C. (2023) Heritage of medieval anatolian turkish architecture: from past to future. Vestnik Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Kul'turologiya i is-kusstvovedenie - Tomsk State University Journal of Cultural Studies and Art History. 52. pp. 130-143. (In Russian). doi: 10.17223/22220836/52/11
Научная статья
НАСЛЕДИЕ СРЕДНЕВЕКОВОЙ АНАТОЛИЙСКОЙ ТУРЕЦКОЙ АРХИТЕКТУРЫ: ОТ ПРОШЛОГО К БУДУЩЕМУ
Канер Туран
Университет изящных искусств им. Мимара Синана, Стамбул, Турция, cinokoturan@yahoo.com
Аннотация. Средневековая архитектура турецкой Анатолии является результатом стремления создать архитектурное пространство для функциональных и художественных целей на анатолийских землях на историческом этапе, возникшем после битвы при Малазгирте в 1071 г. На самом деле было бы гораздо правильнее оценивать это увлечение не как результат, а как процесс. После того как военачальники провозгла-
© C. Turan, 2023
сили свою независимость в регионах, переданных им из-за службы в Великой армии Салджука, Артукиды, Салтукиды, Данишменды и Менгуджеки были созданы как ранние турецкие княжества. Эти княжества синтезируют несколько архитектурных элементов Центральной Азии, с которыми сталкиваются на пути из Центральной Азии в Анатолию, и существующие в настоящее время элементы в Анатолии вместе со структурными особенностями соседних государств. Они построили множество архитектурных сооружений, таких как мечеть, медресе, мост, караван-сарай, святилище и купол. В этом исследовании будут рассмотрены типичные характеристики средневековой анатолийско-турецкой архитектуры, источники, которые ее подпитывают, и ее специфические аспекты путем ссылок на сооружения, построенные вышеупомянутыми княжествами. Поскольку большая часть наследия, оставленного этими княжествами, сохранилась до сих пор, это дает нам важные ключи к пониманию архитектурной эстетики, преобладавшей в то время. Если все это рассматривать вместе, то можно упомянуть о существовании Ренессанса в области архитектуры в Анатолии в течение средневековья.
Ключевые слова: средневековье, Анатолия, архитектура, история, искусство, мечеть, медресе, культурное наследие
Благодарности. Я хотел бы поблагодарить некоторых ученых за полезные предложения по предыдущим версиям статьи, а также профессора, д-ра Нуркан Язычи МЕТИН за ее вклад в создание общих рамок темы.
Для цитирования: Turan C. Heritage of medieval anatolian turkish architecture: from past to future // Вестник Томского государственного университета. Культурология и искусствоведение. 2023. № 52. С. 130-143. doi: 10.17223/22220836/52/11
1. Introduction
After the Great Saljuqs triumphed against the Byzantine Empire at Battle of Malazgirt in 1071, the Turks dominated the Anatolia since the gates of Anatolia were opened for them. That is why the following four-hundred-years (that is, the 11th- 12th- 13th- 14th centuries) on those lands witnessed a movement called Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture. One of the important pillars of this architectural process is the architecture of the Early Turkish Principalities. The Anatolian lands experienced an architectural process by the Early Turkish Principalities of Artukids, Saltukids, Danishmends and Mengtijeks. However, it should be noted that the architectural period of production belonging to the Early Turkish Principalities in the 12th century is more a period of preparation. The 12th century is mostly the period of Great Saljuqs establishing a political union in Anatolia. Before the huge dominance of Anatolian Saljuqs, architectural production was provided by the Early Turkish Principalities. In this sense, the Early Turkish Principalities are especially important to understand the architectural heritage they had left before they have faded away. The development of the structures like mosques, madrasahs, caravansaries, shrines, cupolas in Anatolia was ensured by them. In this study, the typical characteristics of Medieval Anatolian Turkish Architecture will be explained by giving reference to architectural works of Artukids, Saltukids, Danishmends and Mengtijeks and also architectural tradition from Uyghurs and Karakhanids has been transferred to Anatolia by those principalities. Also, "Starting with the Uyghurs, Karakhanids and Ghaznavids, the dome problem continued with the Great Saljuqs, and the Anatolian Turkish architecture has reached magnificent monumental results that are unique in the world. It is possible to see the most vivid form of this in mosque architecture." [1. P. 102] Since the fascinating development of mosque and madrasah in Anatolian Turkish architecture has been sustained by the Early Turkish Principalities, the
structural examples having been referred in this study are mostly mosques and madrasahs.
Turks have a habit of leading a life suitable for settling in the geography they move. Considering the historical process, Turks had naturally intense architectural interactions, especially after their introduction to Islam. However, the Islamic interpretations of the Turks are not first-hand Arap-Islamic, but Iranian-Islamic in origin. Therefore, the concentration of human resources in architectural production comes from Persian region. In other words, the architectural understanding, technical words concerning building and human resources synthesized with Islamic culture belong to Iranian geography. This situation also points to the geographical factors in the phase of Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture. Construction experts from Horasan or Kermanshah region have been mentioned in the inscriptions on the buildings1. For example, there is an inscription with Diyarbakir Grand Mosque mentioning a builder from the Kermanshah region of Iran came to work. Although Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture is Islamic, there are several exceptions. For example, the tomb architecture in the Saljuqs stands somewhere between classical Islam and Christianity and does not actually draw a pure Islamic line. Therefore, Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture has an architectural understanding put forward in both Islamic and Christian cultural environments. Furthermore, the definition of Anatolia when viewed through a motive by a geographical and cultural boundary is a broad definition. For example, while there was architectural production in Konya and Kiziltepe (two distant lands in Turkey) in the same period, we scrutinize both in the category of Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture. However, the field we call Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture, and its relations are different from today. At that time, Mardin region is more connected to Syria than Anatolia. In this regard, although there is a north Syrian connection in Konya by the Artukids, the relations of Medieval Anatolian characteristics in Konya and the ones in Mardin are different from each other. Of course, those differences are also reflected in architecture. Contemporaries and neighbors are particularly important for following the line of the architectural process.
After the Battle of Malazgirt in 1071 resulting in Turks entering Anatolia, some lands were handed to the commanders who took part in the conquest process as iqta2, and in these regions, principalities were established with their names. For example, Artuqids was founded by the son of a Turkmen Bey named Eksuk, Artuk Bey. The founder of Saltukids is Saltukid Bey. When Turks started to take power in Anatolia, that geography was not an empty space. In addition to this, the architectural and cultural accumulation created in Central Asia was also transferred to Anatolia. After adopting Islamic religion outside Anatolia and transitioning to settled culture, the development of Turkish architecture outside Anatolia has been affected by three states: Karakhanids, Ghaznavids and the Great Saljuqs. Those states affected the development of madrasah architecture in Anatolia within the framework of the continuity of Turkish architecture, and even influenced the 19th
1 Inscriptions of the buildings are the most important written sources of the Early Turkish Principalities and Anatolian Turkish architecture period.
2 Zaporozhets defines iqta basically as "the government endowed certain territories as payment for service in the armed forces. These territories, or more specifically, taxes collected from thes territories were called iqta." [2. P. 167].
century Dolmabah$e Palace in Istanbul in terms of its architectural and decorative features.
2. Medieval Anatolian Turkish Architecture
"Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture was developed with continuous trials and errors, and this continuity is not a kind of simple repetition of plans and forms but searching for new spaces by protecting the traditional line" [3. P. 34]. By that, connection, continuity and uniqueness together has always shown itself implicitly or explicitly. For example, in the Great Saljüq mosques, the idea of a courtyard takes shape differently as an inner courtyard in Anatolia. In Kayseri Grand Mosque as a Danishmend building, the idea of an inner courtyard has been turned into a reality. An Artuqid structure of Harput Grand Mosque is one of the most important examples in Anatolia where the inner court plan scheme was applied, too. The general plan of the Old Malatya Grand Mosque of the Anatolian Saljüq also has an inner courtyard idea. The examples of monumental mosque architecture were created by the Great Saljüqs through Masjid-e-Jameh Isfahan and Masjid-e-Jameh Zaverie outside of Anatolia.
Fig. 1. Plan of Diyarbakir Grand Mosque, Diyarbakir (Source: http://www.ne .j p/asahi/arc/ind/2_meisaku/ 35_diyarbakir/diy_eng .htm)
They are especially important as the plan examples developing parallel or transverse to the mihrab wall being appeared in Karakhanids or in the Le§ker-i Bazar examples of the Ghaznavids. Among Turkish principalities, this situation can be found in Diyarbakir Grand Mosque, Silvan Grand Mosque and Kiziltepe Grand Mosque belonging to Artuqid architecture; and, in a Danishmend structure of Kayseri Grand Mosque. Those issues are the effects of the architectural and cultural environment referred to Central Asia.
One of the sources nourishing the Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture is the cultural environment that already existed in these lands when the Turks came to Anatolia from Central Asia. The building and decoration material was mostly stone in Anatolia. Therefore, the Turks also used stones when they came to Anatolia. For
example, Bitlis Grand Mosque is a building made of cut stone. Even though brick minarets are characteristic of Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture, Bitlis Grand Mosque's minaret is also made of stone. While Central Asian mausoleums are usually single-storey, the tombs in Anatolia are usually two-storey with grave floor and visiting floor. This is also an example of the impact of the cultural environment that has been pertinent in Anatolia. Plaster and wood have been used although the main aesthetic element in architecture is stone tile. The usage of stone-brick alternatives passing to the Turks through Byzantine is also important in terms of showing how geographic factors, contemporaries and neighbors influenced architectural features. Existence of a basilical plan scheme in Divrigi Kale Mosque being a tribute to the Mengujeks in Anatolia and Anatolian Saljuq structure of Burmali Mosque in Amasya proves that there is a typological diversity regarding religious architecture in Anatolia. Brick was preferred as the top cover material. For example, bricks and glazed bricks are positioned in diverse ways in the minaret of Siirt Grand Mosque. "It is generally knitted with a horizontal flat pile in the lock knitting technique. They are also placed in vertical and cross stacks for decoration. The core and inner walls were built with horizontal stacking, in the lock (flat) knitting technique, the steps were built with one row of horizontal stacking at the bottom and vertical stacking above it." [4. P. 391] Brick is even used in the base of the minaret of this building. There is a brick minaret in Artuqids' Harput Grand Mosque, too. In terms of showing the continuity of Turkish architecture, the presence of the brick minaret setup is important in Saltukids' Erzurum Kale Mosque. The minaret being the most important part of the mihrab wall of Danishmends' Sivas Great Mosque is also made of brick.
Fig. 2. Plan of Masjid-e-Jameh Isfahan, Isfahan (Source: https://archnet.org/sites/1621/media_contents/62965
Fig. 3. Plan of Umayyad Mosque, Damascus. (Source: https://archnet.Org/sites/31/media_contents/44546)
There are two important schemes in the development of the mosque plan in the Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture: The Umayyad Mosque model as the Islamic one, and the Masjid-e-Jameh Isfahan model as the Central Asian one. As the dome in front of the mihrap wall gradually dominates the space, the courtyard loses its significance in Diyarbakir Grand Mosque, Bitlis Grand Mosque and Siirt Grand Mosque. The dome comes into prominence as a development related to the actual space. The plan of the dome in front of the mihrab that develops transversely or parallel to the mihrab wall is a variation of the multi-legged grand mosque model that is mentioned in the upper head in Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture. Artuqids' Harput Grand Mosque has a plan scheme connected to the Great Saljuqs. This plan scheme of dome-iwan-courtyard together exists in the Old Malatya Grand Mosque as a 13th century structure of Anatolian Saljuqs. The fact that Great Saljuq structure of Diyarbakir Grand Mosque has an Islamic model plan scheme shows that Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture did not copy these models exactly. The Islamic model undoubtedly influenced the Great Saljuq architecture but it should be noted that the classical Islamic Mosque model does not have a dome. This model has a vertical development to the apse wall in the basilical plan scheme and consists of naves. For example, Mengujeks' Kale Mosque also known as Suleyman Pasha Mosque has a rectangular plan divided into three naves with two rows, six bearing legs and conforms to the basilical plan scheme definition. The dome in front of the mihrab in the Artuqids' Silvan Grand Mosque, on the other hand, presents a unique combination of the dome built by the Melik§ah in Masjid-e-Jameh Isfahan, and the dome in front of the altar in the Le§ker-i Bazar Grand Mosque of the Ghaznavids. The dome in front of the mihrab in the Koluk Mosque-Madrasah is an extension of the Central Asian Mosque tradition in which the idea of an inner courtyard is kept alive, and the luminous lantern just behind this dome is another important example in terms of understanding the connections. In fact, the setting of the Koluk Mosque courtyard as a madrasah looks like the one in other Saljuq structures dating to the 13th century and even in the Ottomans. In Danishmend structure of Kayseri Grand
Mosque, is there a luminous lantern arrangement where the idea of the inner courtyard is taken place, too.
Fig. 4. Kayseri Grand Mosque, Kayseri. (Source: https://okuryazarim.com/kayseri-ulu-cami/)
Fig. 5. Crown Door Arrangement of Mardin Latifiye Mosque, Mardin (Source: https://mekan360.com/sanaltur_mardin-latifiye-camii-latifiye-mosque_89.html
In the period of the Early Turkish Principalities and Anatolian Saljuqs existed in Anatolia, the neighbors should be reviewed to understand the connection and the eclectic characteristics. There are Islamic groups such as Ayyubids and Mamluks
in the Southeast. In fact, Ayyubids and Anatolian Saljuq were taken "as opponents to each other were always competing with each other to exert dominance over those principalities" [5. P. 37] Artuqids played a key role in the transfer of their architectural effects to Anatolia due to the geographical factor. For example, while the two-color stonework on the front door of the Kiziltepe Grand Mosque has the effects of the Zengid1 architecture, this is also one of the proofs that the Northern Syria-Anatolia connection was established through the Artukids. The stonework seen in the three-segmented crown door configuration of the Mardin Latifiye Mosque has the Zengid effect. Isa Abu Dirhem as the architect of the Diyarbakir Zinciriye Madrasah also worked in the Zengid service and he brought their stonemasonry expertise to this madrasah. In Diyarbakir Mesudiye Madrasah the effects of a master working under Zengids can be observed, too. There are good examples of Ahlatli stonemasonry in Divrigi Grand Mosque and Hospital as the work of Mengujeks. Tbilisi experts also worked on the stone ornaments of the same structure, and knotted joints formed by moldings associated with the Zengid architecture on the door on the east facade of the building. Georgian influences came from the east. In particular, the Georgian tradition has architecturally influenced the Saltukids established in the region. The triangular pediment setup and twin circular arches on the Emir Saltukid Tomb were remarkably similar with the Georgian churches in that region. Also, vertical triangular niches in Georgian structures "were used in some Islamic structures in Anatolia as well. The most interesting and unique example of this is Emir Saltukid Tomb" [6. P. 245].
Fig. 6. Emir Saltukid Tomb, Erzurum (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Emir_Saltuk_Tomb_-_Emir_Sdtuk_T%C3o/oBCrbesi_03jpg)
1 Zengids is the dynasty founded today's northern Iraq and Syria region between 1127 and 1222. They are famous for their production of fines metal inlay with bronze and also silver. Most of those craftsmen took their highly improved techniques out of the land of their dynasty. Thanks to geographical vicinity, their effects are felt in so many architectural structures in Anatolia.
The fact that the dome in front of Medieval Anatolian Turkish art has given its weight to architecture in a substantial extent due to the need for a new homeland. Realizing the absence of mosque in the geography landed, they built it there due to the need. They built caravansaries and inns for similar reasons. Many different kinds of structures like mosques, tombs, madrasahs, fountains, baths, bridges, mansions and palaces were built. A prominent issue regarding Turkish architecture is that most of these buildings were designed with the personal wealth of the rulers, religious leaders and notables of the city without creating a burden to the state treasury. Of course, there were also structures financially supported by the state treasury, but not very much. For instance, military structures were built from the state treasury. Construction of the fortresses and their maintenance were done by the state treasury. However, in general, the Turkish zoning system has been individualistic and the foundation system1 has been used.
Fig. 7. Gazelle/Deer figures, Melikçah Tower on Diyarbakir Walls, Diyarbakir (Source: [7. P. 870])
Figured plastic decoration has appeared extensively as a decoration style in Anatolian geography. These figures have been real or surreal. As they are bird, dove, elephant, rabbit and human figures; sphinx, dragon, lion mixed figures, harpy, heraltic figures are also located as surreal depictions, and Central Asia is the main location of this effect. For example, in Diyarbakir Grand Mosque, there are plant, animal and human figures on inscriptions of distinctive characteristics. Again, in the Melik§ah Tower on Diyarbakir Walls, there are gazelle and deer figures, as in the Nur Tower, figures like galloping horse, bird, lion, falcon, gazelle in the reliefs together with flower kufi inscriptions. Just above the double-headed eagle was put as a reign symbol. There is a throne symbolism with the horse figures on both sides. The use of animal figures between the inscription text is a rare example not seen generally in Turkish art. Two lion figures on the Ahmedek or Aslan Tower take 3-line inscription in between on Divrigi Castle belonging to the Mengujeks. There are figures like double-headed eagle and falcon as the
1 Foundation system has a major role in Turkish system of governance. It is kind of a system that the owner of the property leaves its rights on private property. However, it does not mean that the owner leaves it to the government. That is why the foundation property belongs neither person nor the government. It belongs to a third-party called society property. Thanks to foundation system, so many services like education, health, zoning, etc. are being done by not placing great burden on the economy of the government. Madrasahs are governed by the economical sources of foundation system as general.
symbol of power in the outer corners of the western gate of the Divrigi Great Mosque and §ifahane (Hospital) of the Mengujeks. On the door of the §ifahane, there are twin windows, gothic decorations and reliefs, and human figures attracting attention. There is no other example of the stone dressing used in the main portals in this schema. The decorations have reached a sculptural dimension in such a 3-dimensional way. In addition to this, a human figure was used in the Karatay Caravansary. Such a figure is there on the facade of Nigde Aleaddin Mosque. There are figured reliefs on the Silvan Malabadi Bridge as an Artuqid structure although it is not available today. There is a double-headed eagle crest on the wiping belt, which takes the form of three lines in the middle area in the Grand Beden Tower. There are sphinx reliefs on both sides. At the bottom, there are also mutually symmetrically placed lion reliefs. The tails of the lion reliefs are in the form of dragon's. There are ornaments with lion figures and eagle crests on the Diyarbakir Yedi Karde§ Tower.
Fig. 8. Yedi Kardeç Tower on Diyarbakir Walls, Diyarbakir (Source: https://www.pbase.com/dosseman/image/5218389)
Various animal figures were used in round arched inward curved niches in Erzurum Emir Saltukid Tomb. Figures such as griffins, dragons, eagles, rabbits, bulls, and mice are some of them of which are examples of figured decoration in Anatolia in this period. But it is a specific example of the use of such a variety and number of figures in a tomb structure. These similar and diverse figures were also used in the fountain iwan of the Karatay Caravansary. As it can be understood, there are human, animal, and surreal figures described in Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture.
The art of this period is displayed as a common motif and language in all decorative arts. Geometric ornaments are decisive in Central Asian Turkish Architecture. They can appear on the border ornaments of the main portal and the border gilding in the art of calligraphy. A sphinx or dragon figure on the stone decoration of the caravansary is similar with the ones on carpets in the Saljuqs. There is a scabby character on the border of the portal.
Calligraphy is important in geometric decoration. They include figures like dragons belonging to pre-Islamic beliefs. This also includes the Central Asian influence. As geometric ornament has a major importance in Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture, then vegetal decoration, figured decoration and writing as an ornamental element are used with the order of importance. In the first half of the 13th century, geometric ornaments are dominant, and herbal decoration after the first half of the same century. There is a figural decoration concentrated in the 13 th century, but it is prevailing in every period. There are also writing decorations in every period, but the density is mostly in the 13th century. For example, in the Artuqids' Silvan Grand Mosque, there is a mihrab with inscriptions and floral geometric ornaments.
Fig. 9. Mama Hatun Cupola, Erzincan (Source: http://www.selcuklumirasi.com/architecture-detail/mama-hatun-kumbeti)
Again, on the stone altar of the Kiziltepe Grand Mosque, are there both vegetal and geometric ornaments. Furthermore, there are kufic inscriptions, geometric interlocking knitting and star motifs on the minaret pedestal of Siirt Grand Mosque as geometric, herbal and kufic decorations in the Mama Hatun Cupola in the Tercan Mama Hatun Complex of Saltukid structure. Above the balcony of Danishmends' Sivas Grand Mosque there are geometric decorations made of brick and glazed brick. There are geometric ornaments on the main portal of Mengujeks' Kale Mosque and geometric arrangements on the corner columns. The most monumental one of the four main portals of Divrigi Grand Mosque is the baroque door or the qibla door. It has unique stone decorations. The tree of life was created in the order of palmettes surrounding the door from two directions. Double leaves, palmettes and lotuses are considered as motifs. The motifs are filled with rumi, stars and geometric forms. Divrigi Grand Mosque is also important in terms of exemplifying how the ornaments that make the building unique is an important architectural element, too. Ozbek says, "The decoration in Divrigi may bear traces from Konya, Georgian, Armenian architectural traditions, Iranian stucco decoration and Central Asian memories in its motif-scale analysis, but it is an original creation in terms of design and fiction. It is emphasized based on the portal" [8. P. 149].
The development of mosques and madrasahs was provided by the Early Turkish Principalities in Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture. The first examples of madrasahs with open courtyards in Anatolia were built by the Artukids and it was the Hatuniye Madrasah in Mardin. Danishmends built the first examples of madrasahs with a covered courtyard in Anatolia.
Fig. 10. Details, Baroque Door, Divrigi Grand Mosque, Sivas (Source: http://www.divrigiulucamii.com/tr/Cennet_Kapi_4.html)
In this sense, Tokat and Niksar Yagibasan Madrasahs being built in the middle of the 12th century are the first examples of Anatolian madrasahs with closed courtyards or domes. Another critical issue belonging to Danishmends is that the arrangement we call the maksoorah1 in the Garipler Mosque in Tokat. In this period, it is quite widespread practice to associate the mausoleum with the architecture. People who have made the structure can prefer many distinct types. But in the madrasah, they prefer to be buried in the corner. Therefore, either one of the places of the madrasah becomes tomb or the shrine is located outside the main iwans and side iwans. This situation is a distinctive feature in Medieval Anatolian Turkish architecture. For example, Mardin §ehidiye Madrasah has a mosque and a tomb. Again, the small domed structure at the corner of Diyarbakir Zinciriye Madrasah2 could be a shrine. Also, there is a tomb space at the corner of Mardin Sultan Isa Madrasah. The fact that the owners of Artuqids' Mardin Hatuniye
1 Maksoorah is the special part of a mosque and it is reserved for the ruler of the government. The aim is to protect the ruler from any potential danger and to provide a safe praying process.
2 Diyarbakir Zinciriye Madrasah "The small central courtyard surrounded by porches resembles the courtyard of a Diyarbakir house with all its dynamic and distracting construction techniques, materials and arches" [9. P. 230].
Madrasah and Saltukids' Tercan Mama Hatun Complex are woman and it shows that female builders have a prominent role in Medieval Anatolian Turkish art.
3. Result and Evaluation
In this study, the typical characteristics of Medieval Anatolian Turkish Architecture have been explained. As these features were revealed, examples were given over the architectural works of the Early Turkish Principalities. In general, in the period immediately after the conquest, the Great SaljUqs built several structures in Anatolia. The architectural process continued by the principalities "created a kind of Renaissance in the field of architecture" [3. P. 34] As the Northern Syria-Anatolian connection was established by the Artukids, many architectural works belonging to the Artukids, SaltUkids, Danishmends and Mengüjeks have reached today. It is possible to say that in general, rich figurative ornaments can be observed, and that their contemporaries and neighbors shaped the architectural accumulation. For example, SaltUkids have Georgian architectural influenced high rim fronted mihrab domes, and the bright lantern just behind the front of the mihrab dome of the Kölük Mosque Madrasah, which makes the Danismend people use the idea of an inner court, is an extension of the tradition of the Central Asia mosque. Considering all these issues together, it is possible to state that the Medieval Anatolian Turkish Architecture had its own developments by using the heritage of the past with great virtue and transferred all these with great delicacy to the future. Therefore, it deserves a detailed examination from the art historical perspective.
References
1. Aslanapa, O. (1991) Anadolu 'da Ilk Türk Mimarisi Baglangici ve Geligmesi [The Beginning and Development of the First Turkish Architecture in Anatolia]. Ankara: Atatürk Kültür Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu, Atatürk Kültür Merkezi.
2. Zaporozhets, V.M. (2012) The Seljuks. Hannover: European Academy of Natural Sciences.
3. Altun, A. (1988) Orta Asya Türk Sanati ile Anadolu'da Selfuklu ve Beylikler Mimarisi [Central Asian Turkish Art and the Architecture of Seljuks and Principalities in Anatolia]. In: Mimarbagi Koca Sinan: Yagadigi Qag ve Eserleri. Ankara: Vakiflar Genel Müdürlügü.
4. Öztürk, §., Kilazvu, B.N. & Ve Karakuj, Ü.C. (2007) Siirt Ulu Cami Minaresi. Vakiflar Dergisi. 13. pp. 385-405. [Online] Available from: http://acikerisim.fsm.edu.tr:8080/xmlui/bit-stream/handle/11352/727/%c3%96zt%c3%bcrk%26K%c4%b1lavuz%26Karaku%c5%9f.pdf?sequenc e=1&isAllowed=y (Accessed: 7th March 2021).
5. Sümer, F. (1990) Selguklular Devrinde Dogu Anadolu 'da Türk Beylikleri [Turkish Principalities in Eastern Anatolia during the Seljuk Period]. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu.
6. Tunfer, O. (1978) Anadolu Türk Sanati ve Yerli Kaynaklarla ilijkiler Üzerine Bir Deneme [An Essay on Anatolian Turkish Art and its Relations with Local Sources]. Vakiflar Dergisi. 11. pp. 239-270. [Online] Available from: http://acikerisim.fsm.edu.tr:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/ 11352/1172/Tun%c3%a7er.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (Accessed: 7th March 2021).
7. Parla, C. (2014) Büyük Selfuklu Sultani Melik §ah'in Diyarbakir'da Yaptirdigi Zafer Aniti Iki Burca Ikonografik Yaklajim [Iconographic Approach to Diyarbakir's Two Monumental Victory Towers Made By Malik Shah The Sultan of Great Seljuk]. Journal of Turkish Studies. 9(10). pp. 865865. [Online] Available from: https://doi.org/10.7827/turkishstudies.7476 (Accessed: 7th March 2021).
8. Özbek, Y. (2009) Anadolu Türk Mimarisinde Taj Süsleme [Stone Decoration in Anatolian Turkish Architecture]. Türkiye AragtirmalariLiteratürDergisi. 7(14). pp. 141-169. [Online] Available from: https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/653598 (Accessed: 7th March 2021).
9. Altun, A. (2006) Anadolu'da Artuklu Devri Medreselerinin Plan §emalari Üzerine Notlar [Notes on the Plan Schemes of Artuklu Period Madrasahs in Anatolia]. Vakiflar Dergisi. 10. pp. 229233. [Online] Available from: http://acikerisim.fsm.edu.tr:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11352/1628/ Altun.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (Accessed: 7th March 2021).
Information about the author:
Turan C. - Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Department of Art History (Istanbul, Turkey). Email: cinokoturan@yahoo.com
The author declares no conflicts of interests.
Сведения об авторе:
Туран К. - Университет изящных искусств Мимара Синана, факультет истории искусств (Стамбул, Турция). Email: cinokoturan@yahoo.com
Автор заявляет об отсутствии конфликта интересов.
Статья поступила в редакцию 07.03.2021; одобрена после рецензирования 09.04.2022; принята к публикации 15.11.2023.
The article was submitted 07.03.2021; approved after reviewing 09.04.2022; accepted for publication 15.11.2023.
