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1ЮЖНО-РОССИЙСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ СОЦИАЛЬНЫХ НАУК. 2019. Т. 20. № 4. С. 121-134
I СОЦИАЛЬНАЯ ПСИХОЛОГИЯ
GROUP RELIABILITY OF THE NUCLEAR POWER PLANT OPERATIONAL SHIFT: CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING
V. V. Tolstikov, K. M. Gaidar, E. F. Borokhovski
Vitaliy V. Tolstikov. Voronezh State University, Universitetskaya pl. 1, Voronezh, 394018, Russia. E-mail: tomsoyer1993@mail.ru. ORCID 0000-0001-7292-5588.
Karina M. Gaidar. Voronezh State University, Universitetskaya pl. 1, Voronezh, 394018, Russia. E-mail: marlen_lora@mail.ru. ORCID 0000-0001-6620-9366 Eugene F. Borokhovski. Concordia University, Centre for the Study of Learning and Performance (CSLP), 1455 Boulevard de Maisonneuve O, Montréal, OC H3G 1M8, Canada. E-mail: eugene.borokhovski@concordia.ca. ORCID 0000-0002-5615-0417.
Abstract. Technological innovations of the 21st century determine the importance of nuclear energy as a viable resource for social progress, but the problem of the Nuclear Power Plants safe functioning is exacerbating. No technological system is capable of foreseeing and rectifying all negative developments in the Nuclear Power Plants functioning. The industry employs people whose job responsibility is, in case of emergency, to prevent deterioration of the situation and/ or eliminate its negative consequences. Psychological science contributes to safety of nuclear energy by studying and supporting characteristics that allow Nuclear Power Plants employees to effectively implement these tasks. Reliability is obviously among these characteristics, but it is typically considered as an individual psychological phenomenon, whereas Nuclear Power Plant employees work in operational shifts that in turn could be more or less reliable. There are pressing needs to expand knowledge about how group reliability manifests itself and what psychological conditions strengthen it. The paper offers a theoretical overview of the problem within the framework of the system- and subject-based methodological approaches. Its outcomes are of marked scientific novelty: for the first time, the socio-psychological essence of the phenomenon is explained and its structure is identified. Specifically, group reliability contains four components: motivational, cognitive, behavioural-volitional, and socio-psychological. The study also describes the related functions and indicators of structural components and subcomponents of group reliability. The research materials can be used to develop measures for studying and means for improving group reliability of the Nuclear Power Plant personnel. Keywords: reliability, group reliability, group subject, operational shift, Nuclear Power Plant.
Introduction
The development of human society in the 21st century is largely determined by numerous technological and scientific breakthroughs that only underscore the need for energy resources. Nuclear energy is among the most viable solutions for powering further social progress. However, it is not without concerns. There is a serious problem of safe operation of Nuclear Power Plants. Unfortunately, the history of nuclear energy knows not only minor incidents of disruption of Nuclear Power Plants functioning, but also major catastrophic failures with grave consequences for the population and the environment: at Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plant in the USA (1979), at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the former USSR (1986) and at the Fukushima-1 Nuclear Power Plant in Japan (2011).
Specialists in various fields are engaged in searching means to effectively solve the problem of safe operation of Nuclear Power Plants (e.g., Hogg et al., 1995; Kecklund et al., 1997; Kim et al., 2003; Schumacher et al., 2011). Psychologists do not stand aside, either. From the perspective of psychological science this problem is to be addressed through increasing reliability of functioning of the Nuclear Power Plants personnel.
The work of operators in industrial production, crews of aircraft and navy ships, sports teams, law-enforcement units, collectives of learners, etc. is an interactive group work.
Their professional duties impose specific demands not only on certain personal characteristics of each group member, but also on particular aspects of their interactions and collaboration, essential for achieving sufficient reliability of the group work (Tretyakov, 2013; Flin et al., 2002; O'Connor et al., 2008 and etc.). Therefore, it is nearly impossible to talk about the reliability of a shift, a crew, or a team, solely in terms of individual characteristics, ignoring the dynamics of the intragroup interactions. Social psychology, when considering the problem of professional reliability, necessarily uses a small work group as its subject and the unit of analysis. While considering the problem of professional reliability, social psychology necessarily uses a small work group (in this case specifically, the 'operational shift') as its subject and the unit of analysis Here and further throughout the text we use the term 'operational shift of the Nuclear Power Plant' to refer to a concept that encompasses similarly structured teams of specialists with particular professional qualifications who's goal of functioning is safe operation of the Nuclear Power Plants across the industry.
The phenomenon of reliability and psychological analysis of its manifestations
In our opinion, in order to better understand the psychological content of group reliability and to operationally define it, it is necessary to find out what types of reliability are the subjects for psychological inquiry and, then to determine how group reliability differs from other types of reliability as presented in psychological literature. Three types are traditionally distinguished: functional, personal, and professional reliability. No matter which branch of psychology to turn to, it is easily noticed that in their interest in the problem of reliability, they describe and study it either as a psychophysiological state (functional reliability), as a behavioural phenomenon (personal reliability), or with respect to professional activity (professional reliability). Moreover, each of these approaches typically considers reliability in isolation from human interactions within a work group (a manufacturing shift, a sports team, a service crew, a military unit, etc.).
V. A. Bodrov introduced the concept of functional reliability understood as the degree of activity and adequacy with which the organism reacts to the environment under particular circumstances. According to him, "functional reliability" and "professional reliability" are closely related, as the former (i.e., functional capabilities of workers) increase the latter (Bodrov, 1989). Functional reliability is not limited to the field of industrial and organizational psychology, but is broadly used whenever the factor of the optimal functioning of the organism and its systems is of particular importance for the performance of certain activities (e.g., in sport). The concept of functional reliability focuses on information- and energy-related resources of a human body instrumental in executing control functions — not just in the context of human-machine interactions, but also in the course of self-regulation (in athletes, military and lifeguard personnel, shift workers, etc.). Functional reliability is associated with reactivity, adaptability, self-regulation, stability, working capacity, and means that the functioning of body systems and regulatory mechanisms is stable and meets the requirements of the unfolding activity not only under normal, but also under unusual (including extreme) circumstances.
Professional reliability of a specialist is defined as "... reliability, faultlessness and timeliness of one's actions aimed at achieving a specific goal in the given conditions, when interacting with equipment or other specialists" (Bodrov, 1989, p. 142). O. L. Osadchuk clarifies that professional reliability is "... an integrative professional quality of a person, that characterizes ... the ability to maintain optimal parameters ... of work performance
regardless of the prevailing conditions" (Osadchuk, 2007, p. 52). The concept of professional reliability is used specifically in application to professional activities and mainly refers to the final result of a person's job tasks implementation. It can be evaluated by the criteria of timeliness, accuracy, faultlessness, and effectiveness of the performed actions. It can be argued that, in a sense, functional reliability is an important prerequisite of professional reliability.
In addition to functional and professional reliability, psychology also operates with the concept of "personal reliability". V. M. Kruk (2013) defines it as "... an integrative psychological phenomenon that determine the dynamic adequacy of a specialist's behaviour to meet the most significant pre-established criteria and requirements ... both in course of professional activity and outside it." (Kruk, 2013). According to O. L. Osadchuk, personal reliability characterizes a professional as a social person in the unity of his character, needs, attitudes and motives of professional activity, individual strategies and ways of solving work problems, and plays a leading role in the formation and maintenance of professional reliability (Osadchuk, 2007). I. A. Kotik defines personal reliability as a fundamental attribute of a personality that characterizes one's capability for predicted responsible behaviour. From his point of view, it is associated with the implementation of social relations (Kotik, 2013). G. A. Ball believes that personal reliability is "a balance between constancy and variability" that combines "dependence on a situation with the ability to overcome its direct impact" (Ball, 2006, p. 252).
Of special interest here is the approach taken by E. Y. Strizhov, who interprets personal reliability as a psychological quality that allows a person to form, in own consciousness, the meanings of moral norms and to understand their social significance and the need to observe them when determining one's actions. Personal reliability then allows one to regulate person's needs, to set current and long-term goals, to take into account other people's interests, to accept responsibilities, and to continually resist selfish norms and morality of a narrow group (Strizhov, 2009).
Moral reliability is viewed as a specific variety of personal reliability (Bormotov, 1992; Strizhov, 2009). Life goals and ways a person achieves them are conscious, organized, and ordered. Moral reliability means that in pursuit of life goals a person follows moral standards and universal human values, despite permanently changing circumstances. As it gives people a sense of stability and security, moral reliability is becoming increasingly important and valuable in all areas of human life, including business, political activity, and professional interactions among colleagues, etc.
It is important to emphasize that creating precisely the moral reliability of workers is currently in the focus of activities presently carried out in Russian nuclear energy industry. This work is implemented through the corporate policy embraced by RosEnergoAtom and RosAtom State Corporations with the following industry values: safety, efficiency, one step ahead, responsibility for the result, respect, and a united team. Practical implementation of these values is aimed at creating specific moral reliability of all the personnel, instrumental in achieving the strategic goals of the industry. At the forefront is the value of security as the industry top priority: It is expected that the Nuclear Power Plant personnel work under the slogan "safety first". For this, industry workers must develop a safety culture — a set of characteristics and features of professional activity, in which safety is a person's main priority in work (Kuznetsov, 2001; Mashin, 2014).
Now we turn to the discussion of another kind of reliability — mental reliability. This concept is widely used, predominantly in the field of sports psychology. There, mental
reliability is understood as a personality trait that allows an athlete to compete stably and effectively for a certain time. A. L. Popov believes that mental reliability is a special systemic quality of human psyche, which functions on biological, psychophysiological, personality and socio-psychological levels. He calls stability and high efficiency of the results (including stable increase in performance and victory in major competitions) the most important components of the athletes' mental reliability. A. L. Popov also notes that athletes cannot be constantly reliable, because sports tend to improve, so maintaining just the same level of performance is equivalent to stagnation in skill. Periodically, an athlete has to adjust his technique and tactics, thereby "losing" his former level of preparedness, but at the same time taking a step forward in skills development. Mental reliability, therefore, is characterized also by the ability to take justifiable risks, based on the awareness of one's capabilities and resources in order to achieve previously unattainable results (Popov, 2019). In other words, psychic reliability is integrative in nature, combining manifestations of functional, personal and professional reliability.
Although reliability is an integral human quality that can have various manifestations, the majority of authors are inclined to interpret it as an individual psychological characteristic, outside the social context. However, since a person is a social being and is constantly involved with particular groups that function in complicated conditions, there is every reason to believe that the phenomenon of reliability is inherent not only to individuals, but also intrinsic to groups, including groups of professionals (or work groups). In the latter case, reliability should not be understood as an additive quality (composed of individual reliabilities of group members), but as an independent characteristic of the entire group as well. Group reliability differs from functional, personal, professional, and mental reliability as having a different "subject basis". Its bearer is not a single person, but an entire social group, which, within the subject methodological approach, can itself be considered as a holistic subject (Gaidar, 2013). Subsequently, it is reasonable to assume that group reliability has its own special structure in which, in addition to components common with other types of reliability, there will be specific qualities/components, as well as specific social and psychological functions
The current state of the group reliability problem
The concept of reliability in Russian psychology has undergone several stages of development, each characterized by a specific conceptual view of this phenomenon (Tolstikov, 2019). The first stage began within engineering and industrial psychology in the middle of the last century in relation to the problem of operators' errors when interacting with technological systems. The issue of reliability in modern psychological science is of interest not only to the fields of its origins, but also to the military, sport, organizational, and social psychology. While at the dawn of its development the concept of reliability was studied exclusively as an individual phenomenon, now attempts are made to research group reliability as well. The idea that a group as a single entity (pretty much like any individual) can be reliable or unreliable in its activities, is gradually gaining recognition. In order for a group to achieve success, it is important to reflect upon its reliability as a whole — that is, to understand forms of its manifestation and factors that contribute to it. The evolution of the reliability concept also includes the fact that over time it acquires an increasingly psychological content — alongside the continued use of "technical" characteristics of "performance consistency", "interference resilience", etc.;
it is becoming "filled" with specifically psychological and socio-psychological categories — e.g., motivation, self-esteem, group cohesion, leadership, etc.
In our view, it is important to distinguish between two forms of reliability depending on the corresponding level of mental organization, namely: individual reliability in its forms (i.e., individual reliability in such varieties as functional, psychic, personal, and professional) and group reliability (i.e., when a work group acts and performs as an integrated subject). With respect to the latter, there is an evident lack of empirical literature. We were able to identify the topic of group reliability specifically addressed to only in research by V. P. Tretyakov (1993), A. V. Sidorenkov and colleagues (2014), S. V. Sarychev (2007) and his students (e.g., Sal'nikov, 2018).
Specifically, V. P. Tretyakov, while studying work reliability of the Nuclear Power Plant operators underscored that "...the operating staff ... is interconnected, therefore ... we are obliged to consider the processes that occur during the interaction of a person with a person" (Tretyakov, 2013, p. 4). In turn, A. V. Sidorenkov and colleagues noted that the reliability of a group is, on one hand, its ability to solve professional problems, and on the other, to perform tasks socio-psychological in nature. At the same time, reliability implies the capability of a group to maintain not only the specified quality of the work it is performing, but also to sustain its psychological parameters (cohesion, trust, etc.) under the disturbing influence of objective, social or socio-psychological factors, both external and internal (Sidorenkov, Sidorenkova, & Ul'yanova, 2014).
S. V. Sarychev understands the group reliability as "... the systemic integrated quality of a group, which is actualized in tense and extreme conditions" (Sarychev, 2011, p. 6). The concept of group reliability, hence, encompasses the psychological content of group motives and social attitudes aimed at improving the organization of group members' joint activities in such extreme conditions. According to Sarychev, group reliability is grounded in optimization of the group structure with the priority of directing its activity in a way that would ensure: the group self-management in maintaining organizational order, its ability to orientate itself, specific leadership structure (a balance of tactical and strategic leadership), and an adequate morally-positive reaction to errors. A reliable group is characterized by high efficiency of joint activities, established motivation to improve performance, and by the ability to maintain normal functioning in stressful and extreme situations.
Most often group reliability is studied in the context of professional activity. We have to affirm that, despite its significance, the phenomenon of group reliability is still un-derrepresented in the Russian research literature, in its social psychology, specifically. Recently, S. V. Sarychev and his students have worked on the development of the concept by studying its features in training groups, astronaut crews, sports teams, and collectors' teams (Dyomin, 2017; Duka, 2018; Sal'nikov, 2018; Sarychev, 2007, 2011). However, this kind of work is rather pioneering and still rare.
As for group reliability of the Nuclear Power Plant operational shift, it can be argued that so far it has not become a specific subject of social-psychological empirical research. Moreover, such operational shifts have not yet been considered group subjects themselves.
General characteristic of group reliability of the Nuclear Power Plant operational shift
Here we have attempted to fill this gap in research of group reliability specifically with respect to operational shifts of the Nuclear Power Plant industry. This paper aims to
clarify what socio-psychological qualities distinguish Nuclear Power Plant operational shifts from other work groups, also abiding by shift schedules (e.g., road patrol or ambulance shifts, manufacturing factories shifts). First of all, it needs to be noted that the underrepresentation of the issue in Russian social psychology is largely explained by the fact that Nuclear Power Plants are sensitive objects with elevated security arrangements. Therefore, it is extremely difficult for psychologists to gain access to their territory for the purpose of conducting empirical research. As an exception, some studies by V. P. Tretyakov could be named (Tretyakov, 1993, 2013). At the same time, as the Nuclear Power Plant functioning is associated with potential danger (occasionally turning into real hazard up to a level of a catastrophic threat), operational shifts as a special category of small work groups should receive due attention from psychologists to better understand and optimize conditions of their professional activity.
A typical Nuclear Power Plant operational shift is a small group of 3-12 people united by a common performance goal and directly interacting with each other. Each operator implements a specific professional function and, thus, has a certain role status. Having identified the qualitative characteristics specific to the Nuclear Power Plant operational shift as a small group, we classified them into those related to the particularities of its activity and those determining the psychological state of this small group. The former includes: functioning within a sensitive facility that imposes certain safety measures; shift (time alteration) nature of activity with the potentials to ambiguously affect the well-being and relationships (particularly with the family members); interaction with the unique sophisticated equipment that is associated with high demands for professional competence and requires group preparedness for carrying out its activities adequately. Among the specific characteristics of the latter are: the inconsistent dynamics and composition of the shift, which may cause unexpected complications in interacting with the colleagues and require good socio-psychological adaptability; the potential occurrences of the so-called "hidden panic" (Molyako, 1992) manifested in elevated levels of anxiety, fear, feelings of helplessness caused by the awareness of constantly present risk factors (threats to or loss of health, life, safety, and well-being); a state of increased responsibility associated with a "high cost" of errors, and potentially entailing continuous neuropsychological stress, often with the neurotic symptoms. While the above-listed specific activity characteristics of the operational shift do not directly indicate its nature as a collective (small group) subject, its specific psychological characteristics emphasize precisly the very subjective status of the operational shift, as they relate to the whole group properties and states.
Based on what has been accumulated through research on reliability, including its socio-psychological component, the following definition of group reliability of the Nuclear Power Plant operational shift can be formulated. Group reliability is a complex systemic characteristic that encompasses both professional and socio-psychological qualities of a work group, formed as a result of coordinated interactions among group members, updated in emergency (intense, extreme) situations of joint professional activity that enables prompt and productive solutions of work tasks with the purpose of ensuring safe operation of the Nuclear Power Plants. Note that we consider the reliability of the operational shift precisely as a group characteristic, although we do not underestimate, of course, the significance of the reliability of its individual members. Underscored here also is that we can only assess group reliability of the Nuclear Power Plant operational shift in a contingency situation (Tolstikov, Gaidar, 2018). In ordinary working conditions
one can observe and evaluate other characteristics of an operational shift, such as success, consistent performance, and interference resilience.
We could not help but notice that the research literature, when speaking about reliability of an individual, does not concretize in what exact conditions it manifests itself, and often limits itself to a general statement "under given conditions". In our view, much more certainty is needed with regard to the concept of group reliability. It is important both for studying and for purposefully improving this characteristic of a small group. We agree with those psychologists (e.g., S. V. Sarychev, 2011; A. V. Sidorenkov et al., 2014) who believe that group reliability is actualized (objectified) when some "disturbance factors" lead to contingency or even extreme situations. The need for group reliability of the Nuclear Power Plant operational shift arises at a time when the circumstances, in which its professional activities take place, suddenly become complicated and/or threatening. In other words, the main condition for the manifestation of group reliability of an operational shift is the development of an emergency situation, associated with real threats to safety (either to the environment, to other people and/or to the group itself). Such situation would "challenge" the operational shift and "trigger" actualization of group reliability as its integrative characteristic. We tried to reflect this very understanding of the concept of group reliability of the Nuclear Power Plant operational shift in terms of the operational definition presented above. A contingency situation activates the need to fulfill the operational shift's main task — to ensure the continuous safe operation of the Nuclear Power Plant equipment. The ability to accomplish it with the minimal "loss", while maintaining the group structure and the ability to communicate effectively, largely depends on the phenomenon that we have defined as "group reliability".
The following specific signs are indicative of a typical contingency situation: surprise; threats to health and to people's lives; time restrains; limited physical, physiological, and mental resources (Tretyakov, 1993). A contingency situation is, in a certain sense, a unique phenomenon: it possesses typical characteristics of a tense, extreme and emergency situation that, in case of unfavorable outcomes (i.e., if an operator fails to adequately deal with them in time), may lead to the development of a catastrophic situation. A vivid example is the Chernobyl disaster.
As the systematic approach is our methodological basis for studying group reliability of the Nuclear Power Plant operational shifts, let us first focus on the structural and functional analysis of the phenomenon. We have to admit that the literature on the problem contains very scattered information about the structure of reliability in general and group reliability, in particular. With regard to the reliability structure of an individual, the position taken by V. M. Kruk, who distinguishes cognitive, motivational and voluntary components in individual reliability (Kruk, 2013) is specifically noteworthy. Motivational and behavioural components are also discussed by O. L. Osadchuk (2007). Presumably, the most elaborated ideas regarding the socio-psychological structure of group reliability can be found in the research by S. V. Sarychev: "The main socio-psychological components of group reliability are: group consciousness, group motivation, common perception of interpersonal relationships and attitude towards enriching them, organizational relationships, improved volitional group self-regulation, attitude towards successfully overcoming difficulties, and optimal psychological distance between group members in the system of their interpersonal relations" (Sarychev, 2008, p. 7-8). In addition, he considers effectiveness, interaction, coordination of actions, and balance between interactions and relationships to be the indicators of group reliability.
Revealing the structure of group reliability of the operational shift of Nuclear Power Plants requires a clear operational definition of the phenomenon. In our understanding, it can be formulated as follows. Group reliability of the operational shift of Nuclear Power Plants is a complex of interrelated socio-psychological characteristics, which include: (1) motivational orientation of the operational shift to obtain the desired result of professional activity by means of maintaining organizational order and overcoming difficulties that arise; (2) the presence in the group consciousness of a set of goals and values of safe functioning of a technical object; (3) social perceptions of joint activity in regular and emergency situations; (4) specific behaviour of the operational shift in such situations and the related executive decisions and actions; and (5) intragroup interactions and interpersonal relations.
Socio-psychological structure and functions of group reliability
Based on this operational definition of group reliability of the operational shift of the Nuclear Power Plants, it is possible to identify the structure of this socio-psychological phenomenon. In our view, this structure could be further elaborated and supplemented based on the following logical hierarchy: structural components; sub-components included in specific structural components; and indicators of each sub-component. Thereby, the socio-psychological structure of group reliability of the Nuclear Power Plant operational shift can be outlined as follows.
1. The motivational component of the structure in its totality reflects the focus of the operational shift on achieving the main (i.e., prescribed or duty-driven) result of its activity. The motivational component consists of the following sub-components:
1.1. Group motivation — its indicator is shared by all shift members orientation towards achieving success in performing professional duties, including jointly overcoming difficulties.
1.2. Social attitude towards enrichment of organizational relationships — as indicated by common desire to improve, both operationally and psychologically, the shift common activities (i.e., restructuring intra-group interactions to account for more complicated conditions, establishing the optimal organizational order and distribution of active roles, and choosing appropriate methods and algorithms of carrying out joint activities).
1.3. Social attitude towards success in overcoming situations of organizational uncertainty — as indicated by common desire to contribute to dealing with difficulties in the process of joint activity, to successfully overcome them.
2. The cognitive component of the structure is the whole scope of mental representations and cognitive qualities of the operational shift that reflect its group consciousness. It consists of the following sub-components:
2.1. Group consciousness — its indicator is members' mental representation (shared by group members) of both an emergency situation and of the entire system of organizational interpersonal relationships in the shift.
2.2. Intellectual unity — as indicated by the accord/similarity of opinions of the shift members in their discussion of particular work situations, and subsequently by the coordinated decision adopted by the entire shift (Gaidar, 2013; Sarter et al., 1991).
2.3. Group-wide goals and values — as indicated by all shift members accepting the goals of the Nuclear Power Plant safe operation, as well as values of the safety culture — such as: value of joint activities, common understanding and preservation of both — group and individual reliability, stability, and success.
3. The behavioural-volitional component of the structure is the entire complex of the group's general abilities and skills that manifest themselves through group behaviour and combined willpower. It includes the following sub-components:
3.1. Enriched volitional group self-regulation — it objectifies volitional unity of the shift by attracting additional psychological resources: common values, moral culture, compassionate relationships, narrowing psychological distances between the shift members, and common verbal and non-verbal "language".
3.2. Preservation of the organizational order means that in a contingency situation, the configuration of organizational relations is maintained stable.
3.3. Experience of joint group activities — it provides ability to mobilize group preparedness by actualizing shared knowledge and skills.
4. The socio-psychological component of the structure is the sum of group psychological characteristics that ensure the operational shift's successful performance in emergency situations. It consists of the following components:
4.1. Enriched leadership means that, in case of emergency (when the need for a change/ solidification in group leadership may arise), the group current/former leader can actualize new functions aimed to resolve the crisis, and/or promote harmonious relationships between her/himself and the new leader (nominated by the shift in case of emergency) to enable their concerted actions (Sarychev, 2008; Schumacher et al., 2011).
4.2. Optimal psychological distance between the group members — as indicated by the adequate reaction of the shift to the mistakes made by its individual members, regardless of their within-group status.
4.3. Preservation of effective intra-group communications — as indicated by the use of common verbal and non-verbal "language" in intra-group communications, and by the shift members' awareness of the emergency situation and adequate means for resolving it.
We see the advantage of the structural analysis of group reliability of the Nuclear Power Plant operational shift in its ability to reveal the structure of the phenomenon in a way that would allows us to direct further empirical research, which will undoubtedly contribute to the expansion of scientific understanding of the group reliability phenomenon, both conceptually and for studying various aspects of its manifestation in small groups, specifically in the Nuclear Power Plant operational shifts.
The leading meanings of the concept of "reliability" is "functionality", understood as the ability of a person to perform its functions according to some specified standards, regardless of the situation. It is only logical then to consider what the major functions of group reliability are. Unfortunately, we were not able to locate any definitive information about these functions, in the research literature, therefore, we offer our own vision of this issue.
As the methodological principle of systematicity postulates, the structure of a system and its functions are interconnected: it is the structure (i.e. the interconnection of the components that form the system) that determines its functions, while the latter can only be detected in the structure of the system by manifestation of its individual components. Based on our understanding of the structure of group reliability, we will name and characterize its major functions that are important for the Nuclear Power Plant operational shift in their relations with the corresponding structural components.
Activating-dynamic function (connected to the motivational component): group reliability increases the level of activity (in our case, professional activity) of the Nuclear
Power Plant operational shift due to its group motivation, as the latter is actualized in an emergency situation and requires from the personnel to strengthen such qualities as efficiency, stability, concentration, and resourcefulness. This function is also responsible for the activation of the dynamic representation of the manipulated Nuclear Power Plant equipment.
The reservation-compensatory function (also connected to the motivational component): thanks to the orientation of the operational shift to successfully overcome difficulties, group reliability actualizes its resource potential (strictly professional, organizational, and socio-psychological) that the operational shift holds as a group subject, but does not use in the ordinary conditions and, at the same time, compensates for the shortcomings of personal reliability that may occur in individual members of the operational shift.
Cooperative-integrative function (connected to the cognitive component): group reliability, as it is embodied in the group consciousness and in the intellectual unity of the operational shift, manifests itself in generating hypotheses about "what happened", "where it happened" and "why it happened" — all important components of the correct identification of the problem and, subsequently its solution on the basis of holistic perception of the emergency situation. Through this function, group reliability also contributes to the unification of the efforts of the shift members grounded in common understanding of the situation, the associated arising problems, requiring operational solutions. It also adds to maintaining the shift's own image as a single entity, and to ensuring its internal integrity.
Operational-instrumental function (connected to the behavioural-volitional component): group reliability stimulates the use by the operational shift of previously accumulated operational experience of jointly functioning in emergency situations (in the nuclear power industry it is typically referred to as operating experience). It also promotes selection and implementation of those professional actions, operations, methods, and algorithms that are most likely to produce favourable outcomes, i.e., the "return" of technical and technological processes to their normal mode, as the main goal is the normal operation of the Nuclear Power Plant.
Mobilization-effective function (connected to the behavioural-volitional component): two particular components of group reliability — volitional group self-regulation and maintenance of organizational order — provide more intensive functioning of the operational shift, ensure optimal distribution and redistribution of the professional roles and activities among its members and attainment of the expected (prescribed) performance indicators.
Psychological and stabilizing function (connected to with the socio-psychological component): group reliability allows the operational shift to maintain stability of psychological state of its members by means of the enriched leadership in emergency situations, by enriching effective communication within the group and with the organization, by not only reproducing the structure of intra-group connections and interactions, but also by restructuring the organizational relations, which is manifested in stress resilience of the shift, its vitality, optimal emotional state, coordination of actions, and fortification of the sense of confidence in achieving the desired result of professional activity.
Thus, the entire complex of group reliability major functions, as designated in the proposed framework, allows the Nuclear Power Plant operational shift to be an effective subject of professional activity not only in ordinary conditions, but — most importantly — in any contingency situation of the Nuclear Power Plant functioning.
Conclusion
As our analysis has shown, the reliability phenomenon has a long history of conceptual development. It is traditionally viewed as a personal psychological phenomenon and has been studied in various fields of psychology, namely: industrial and organizational psychology, engineering, military, sports, aviation psychology, and even pedagogical psychology. Currently, a new trend has been identified in the development of the reliability problem — a socio-psychological one, orienting reliability studies more toward another level of mental and social organization: a group level, especially, a small group, which also, as a collective subject, can be either reliable or unreliable.
Most often, group reliability is manifested in professional activities, so it is only logical to consider it in this particular context and categorize it as professional group reliability. To date, certain aspects of group reliability have been studied on samples from training groups, astronaut crews, sport or collectors' teams, etc. However, group reliability of the Nuclear Power Plant operational shift has not yet become the subject of a special socio-psychological study. Yet, it is a complex systemic phenomenon associated with both professional and socio-psychological qualities of a work group, which has its own structure and performs a number of important functions to enable error-free and trouble-free functioning of the operational shifts which, in turn, ensures the smooth operation of the Nuclear Power Plant.
Our theoretical study allows us to formulate the following conclusions.
1. Conceptually, group reliability of the Nuclear Power Plant operational shift can be defined as a complex systemic characteristic that encompasses both professional and socio-psychological qualities of a work group, has its own structure and is responsible for a number of important functions that enable error-free and trouble-free job performance of an operational shift to ensure uninterrupted functioning of the Nuclear Power Plant.
2. From an operational point of view, group reliability is a complex of interrelated socio-psychological characteristics, which include: (1) motivational orientation of the operational shift to obtain desired outcomes of its professional activity by means of maintaining the organizational order and overcoming difficulties; (2) the presence in the group consciousness of a set of goals and values of safe functioning of a technical object; (3) social perceptions of the joint activity in regular and emergency situations; (4) specific behaviour of the operational shift in such situations and the related executive decisions and actions; and (5) intragroup interactions and interpersonal relations.
3. The structure of group reliability of the Nuclear Power Plant operational shift includes four components: motivational, cognitive, behavioural-volitional, and socio-psychological. Each of them can be recognized and explained through the corresponding indicators.
4. The proposed structure of the group reliability phenomenon is represented by specific characteristics that are necessary and possible to study empirically. It opens the prospect for substantially strengthening the socio-psychological component in preparing the operational personnel of Nuclear Power Plants for joint effective actions in emergency situations to ensure the safe functioning of this ergatic (i.e., "human-machine" type) system.
5. The main functions of group reliability of the Nuclear Power Plant operational shift, associated with its corresponding structural components, include: activating-dynamic and reservation-compensating function (connected to the motivational component of group reliability), cooperative-integrative function (connected to the cognitive compo-
nent), operational-instrumental and mobilization-effective function (connected to the behavioural-volitional component), and finally, psychological and stabilizing function (connected to the socio-psychological component).
In modern society, characterized not only by rapid scientific and technological progress, but also by a multi-directional socio-political, socio-economic, cultural and moral development, the problem of ensuring reliability of any kind of human professional activity should be continuously analyzed and re-examined, to keep up with the times. This calls for the development of new approaches to the research of the reliability phenomenon at a group level, one of which can apparently be found within the subject methodological approach.
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Received 16.10.2019 Accepted 28.11.2019
For citation: Tolstikov V. V., Gaidar K. M., Borokhovski E. F. Group Reliability of The Nuclear Power
Plant Operational Shift: Conceptual Understanding.— South-Russian Journal of Social Sciences.
2020. Vol. 21. No. 1. Pp. 121-134.
ГРУППОВАЯ НАДЁЖНОСТЬ ОПЕРАТИВНОЙ СМЕНЫ АТОМНОЙ ЭЛЕКТРОСТАНЦИИ: КОНЦЕПТУАЛЬНЫЕ ОСНОВЫ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ
В. В. Толстиков, К. М. Гайдар, Е. Ф. Бороховский
V. V. Tolstikov et al. Group reliability of the nuclear power plant operational shift... Толстиков Виталий Владимирович. E-mail: tomsoyer1993@mail.ru
Воронежский государственный университет, Университетская пл., 1, г. Воронеж, 394018, Россия
Гайдар Карина Марленовна. E-mail: marlen_lora@mail.ru. ORCID: 0000-0001-6620-9366 Воронежский государственный университет, Университетская пл., 1, г. Воронеж, 394018, Россия
Бороховский Евгений. E-mail: eugene.borokhovski@concordia.ca. ORCID: 0000-0002-5615-0417
Concordia University, 1455 Boulevard de Maisonneuve O, Montréal, OC H3G 1M8, Canada
Аннотация. Технологические прорывы XXI века обусловливают значимость атомной энергетики как ресурса общественного прогресса. При этом обостряется проблема безопасного функционирования атомных электростанций (АЭС). Предметом интереса психологической науки, участвующей в решении проблем атомной энергетики, являются характеристики, позволяющие сотрудникам эффективно предупреждать и ликвидировать непредвиденные и опасные ситуации на АЭС, в том числе надежность. Но рассматривается она преимущественно как индивидуально-психологический феномен. При ее изучении игнорируется тот факт, что персонал работает в составе оперативных смен, которые, являясь малыми группами, могут быть надежными или нет. Актуальность исследования групповой надежности оперативной смены АЭС обусловлена потребностью в новых знаниях о проявлениях этой надежности и психологических условиях, повышающих ее уровень. Поскольку групповая надежность оперативной смены АЭС еще не изучалась психологами, проведено ее теоретическое исследование на основе методологии системного и субъектного подходов. Его результаты характеризуются научной новизной: впервые определена социально-психологическая сущность групповой надежности, выделена ее структура, включающая четыре составляющих (мотивационную, когнитивную, поведенческо-волевую, социально-психологическую), каждая из которых состоит из компонентов и их показателей, описаны основные функции, соотносящиеся со структурными составляющими. Материалы исследования могут быть использованы для разработки мероприятий по повышению надежности персонала, что позволит продвинуться в обеспечении безопасной работы АЭС и минимизации вероятности развития радиационных аварий.
Ключевые слова: надежность, групповая надежность, групповой субъект, оперативная смена, атомная электростанция (АЭС). DOI: 10.31429/26190567-21-1-121-134
Статья поступила в редакцию 16.10.2019 Статья принята к публикации 28.11.2019
Для цитирования: Толстиков В. В., Гайдар К. М., Бороховский Е. Ф. Групповая надёжность оперативной смены атомной электростанции: концептуальные основы исследования. — Южно-российский журнал социальных наук. 2020. Т. 21. № 1. С. 121-134.
© 2020 by the author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
