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ПОДХОД К ГЕОПРОСТРАНСТВЕННОЙ ИНФОРМАЦИИ И ЕЕ ПРЕДСТАВЛЕНИЮ: ТОЧКА ЗРЕНИЯ МЕЖДУНАРОДНОЙ КАРТОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ АССОЦИАЦИИ (ICA) НА СОВРЕМЕННУЮ КАРТОГРАФИЮ
Ласло Зентаи
Университет им. Лоранда Этвёша в Будапеште, (ELTE), H-1117 Будапешт, Пазмань Петер шетань 1/A, Венгрия, доктор наук, профессор, зав. кафедрой картографии и геоинформатики, генеральный секретарь и казначей Международной картографической ассоциации (ICA), тел.: +36-1-372-2975, e-mail: lzentai@caesar.elte.hu
Вторая половина XX века вызвала огромные изменения во многих областях науки, включая картографию. В статье описываются наиболее важные задачи и делается попытка прогнозирования развития тематического картографирования в будущем. Изменения картографических технологий влияют на всю картографию в целом, поэтому встает вопрос, а как же можно охарактеризовать новую картографию? Все ли новые технологии приемлемы для нас или некоторые из них могут привести к прекрасному новому миру? Чтобы ответить на эти вопросы, автор дает обзор наиболее главных достижений в области картографии за последние 50 лет.
Ключевые слова: картография, тематическая картография, «большие данные», технологии, ГИС, веб-карта, GPS, Google, краудсорсинг.
GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION ACCESS AND REPRESENTATION: THE ICA’S VIEW ON TODAY’S CARTOGRAPHY
Laszlo Zentai
Eotvos Lorand University, (ELTE), H-1117 Budapest, Pazmany Peter setany 1/A, Hungary,
Prof., Dr., Head of Department of Cartography and Geoinformatics, Secretary General and Treasure of ICA, tel: +36-1-372-2975, e-mail: lzentai@caesar.elte.hu
The second half of the 20th century caused big changes in many areas of sciences including cartography. This paper summarizes the main challenges of this process and tries to forecast the trends of the future development in thematic cartography. The changes of the cartographic technologies react to the cartography itself - but how can we characterize this new cartography? Are all these new technologies are advantageous for us or some of them may cause a brave new world? To answer these questions, the author reviews the major technological advances of cartography in the last 50 years.
Key words: cartography, thematic cartography, big data, GIS, technologies, webmap, GPS, Google, crowdsourcing.
1. Introduction
Nowadays we have so much spatial data available that one of the most important problems to solve is the efficient processing or use of these data, their conversion into easily understandable information. The trendiest term in these years is the big data, which is really relevant is remote sensing (satellite images, laser scanning),
but including lot of personal data which are out of control of the person himself/herself.
2. Changes at the beginning of the digital era
The cartography - as most of the sciences - is continuously evolving. The change is the essence of science. If we look back to the changes in cartography, we may realize that in the last 50 years the pace of changes has dramatically accelerated. We can even say that cartography has been industrialized.
There were important changes in map producing techniques in the second part of the 20th century. During the 1950s, offset printing became the most popular form of commercial printing as improvements were made in plates, inks and paper, maximizing the technique's good production speed and plate durability allowing production of more and more thematic maps (mostly as part of all kinds of atlases). The most influential change was the implementation of the digital technologies (making the previous technical process totally unnecessary) such as desktop publishing and its tools (image setter, laser printer, software). However, there were more specific changes at that time in cartography.
Much of the world was poorly known and mapped until the widespread use of aerial photography following World War II. Modern cartography is based on a combination of ground observations and remote sensing. Satellite images became useful tools for mapping: giving the chance to map areas that were difficult to map with ground techniques and to make the secrecy of topographic maps less relevant. Satellite images have given access information for the whole world, bringing global mapping to reality. The main difficulty is the efficient use of this information: satellites provide so much information, for instance pictures, which are difficult to use. IT can provide us with solutions concerning data mining and managing big data.
Nowadays, ground observation is used primarily for verifying the details of maps made using remote sensing techniques. However, the topographic mapping, where ground survey was essential, has changed considerably: the ground survey part of the topographic mapping has entirely disappeared in most countries and has been replaced by high-resolution orthophotos leaving the users to interpret the content for their use. Maps generated only by ground observations are still important but they are usually for limited distribution only. They are local and at large scale, such as architectural plans and land surveys.
Data used to produce highly technical maps or maps made for wide distribution are typically collected with aerial photogrammetry or remote sensing from low Earth orbit.
Thematic cartography gets new fields of applications in the Internet era (just like a few decades before when the GIS was expanded), by interactive on-line maps or
combinations of the data with webmaps. Within the field of interactive thematic maps, we have the possibility to leave the choice for an appropriate data representation to the user offering them advice on the most suitable representation methods.
2.1. GIS
GIS is a complex technology that comprises the data input processes, storing of information in a computer system, checking and analyzing of data, manipulation, extension and the graphic representation of geo-referenced data. Data integration and analyzing capabilities make GIS different from other information systems.
Maps are used for centuries for the representation of spatial data supporting a better understanding of the spatial relationships for the users. The digital manipulation of spatial data gained great importance in the last two decades. The environment in which the users interpret the maps has dramatically changed (instead of paper maps provided by experts, nowadays non-experienced users have access to data and the necessary software), providing a deeper understanding and analysis of spatial relations and processes.
GIS allows the integration of data derived from various sources. GIS can test user models on the stored data and the users may get answers to their specific questions (although only experts can select the most relevant information). The great efficiency of maps in communicating spatial information is enabled by applying cartographic rules („the map language”).
As the maps created in GIS software are mostly not cartographically processed, these maps generally do not strictly implement the cartographic rules (especially not in web environment, where the screen size and resolution is generally limited and it is nearly impossible to design a thematic map which fits all potentially available screen size and resolution). GIS maps are regularly created automatically by using the built-in algorithms and tools, therefore the interpretation of these maps is difficult for normal users; however, the main purpose of GIS generated maps is decision support.
Nowadays, most new maps are generated from data; almost all countries digitize their official topographic and cadastral maps and most of the data used for map production is available in digital form. Therefore, the logical consequence is that most (if not all) maps have to be created by using GIS techniques.
However, mapmakers have to be familiar with the new technologies; GIS based map making requires a different type of knowledge than in the pre-GIS era. Morita (2004) defined the differences between GIS and maps. GIS means data input, database building, data analysis and data output for spatial information. Mapping includes not only map making, but also map use and map communication, as it considers the interaction between map, spatial image and the real world. GIS is
system function oriented, whereas map is human-oriented, including spatial cognition, decision making and communication.
The most successful global on-line mapping service, GoogleMaps is a widely used mapping application. Google has not invented crowdsourcing itself and probably when GoogleMaps started crowdsourcing was not planned to be integrated, but nowadays Google is ready to use advantage of crowdsourcing. As long as volunteers will be ready to contribute, Google and similar companies will use this resource, but how will anyone else in the GIS business make money by compiling data using a professional team of map data compilers?
Higher education in cartography has conformed to the new circumstances. In most places not only the curriculum has been modified, but the name cartography has been removed from the curriculum. Nevertheless, thematic mapping in most places is still an important part of the education: GIS software offer us tools for the manipulation and provide us with all known methods. In the beginning, GIS was poor in visualization, but nowadays users are insisting on having every function which was previously available in traditional thematic cartography. (Some years ago a tutor of a widely used GIS package mentioned that at least 95% of the thematic maps created by their package was using the default legend, as users had no idea how to change the legend or the users did not even think that they had the opportunity to make changes in the legend.)
2.2. GPS
The Global Positioning System (GPS) was designed and built and is operated and maintained by the U.S. Department of Defence. It used to be known as the Navstar Global Positioning System and was first brainstormed at the Pentagon in 1973 as they were looking for a satellite system that was error-proof. In 1978, the first operational GPS satellite was launched and in 1993, the 24th Navstar satellite was lunched into orbit, completing the network of satellites. Even with a rather inexpensive GPS receiver, one can instantly define a location on the planet to within a few meters, or depending on the device and the processing methods with an even higher precision. The process of defining geographic location does not require special user skills, but the interpretation of the result demands for additional skills.
This technology was made possible by a combination of scientific and engineering advances, particularly the development of the world's most accurate timepieces: atomic clocks that are precise to within a billionth of a second. The clocks were developed by physicists seeking answers to questions about the nature of the universe, with no conception that their technology would someday lead to a global navigation system.
Within 10 years GPS receivers became daily used devices: they are also available as built-in-devices (simple and low-cost chips) in smartphones, in some digital
cameras and in laptop and tablet computers. GPS has entirely changed terrain navigation; in most areas (where very high precision is not required), the traditional ground techniques have disappeared, because the use of GPS is fast and very easy.
An increasing number of GPS users would like to use correct, updated maps. The coordinates provided by the GPS are not precisely enough for the location and navigation: geo-referenced digital maps are needed. The update is the most challenging issue, which requires continuous efforts (the most efficient way, especially for car and pedestrian navigation systems, is the systematic re-survey). However, some users think that the geolocation data is sensitive and personal information, and service providers cannot share them by third parties or cannot use the data without the explicit permission of the owner of the device. The number of smart phone users is dramatically increasing, but more and more users become afraid of the “big brother” who can get at the geolocation data of the user with the contribution of the mobile phone service provider or the GPS.
2.3. Internet
Offset printing made it possible to produce thousands of identical maps in a short amount of time. The Internet has made it possible to simultaneously "print" and distribute thousands of maps every second.
If we look at the statistics of the most frequently used words in Internet search engines, the world “map” belongs to the ten most frequently used terms. Internet users are looking for maps and if demands are issued on the web, there are services to fulfil the demands.
The young generation uses Internet as the main (or rather the only) source of information also for maps. These users are also very open to buy and use new devices, like GPS receivers, but the devices themselves are not attractive enough. Nevertheless, if they are built-in in smartphones or tablets they are much more frequently used. GPS receivers became increasingly popular when more detailed and updated maps became available for car navigation or outdoor activities. Without these maps, the simple geographic coordinates are not too attractive or useful for average users (Cammack, 2005).
GPS can easily collect geographic data, but the problem is the visualization, the representation of the data. To visualize data requires some experience. However, for most users this is far too difficult. The main problem was the lack of easily available cartographic data. In many countries (especially in Europe), the state topographic and cadastral maps are not freely available. When Google released GoogleMaps, its global and freely accessible map service has made the representation much easier (building mash-ups, using APIs).
OpenStreetMap (OSM), initiated in 2004 and the foundation established in 2006, also has to be mentioned. The aim is to access free geographic data; the maps of
the OSM global service is now comparable to GoogleMaps and other similar services.
OpenStreetMap interface (Hungarian interface), http://www.openstreetmap.hu/
Until about 2005, delivery of geographic information and GIS capabilities over the Internet was possible and increasingly more sophisticated but a combination of factors limited their use. Developing an Internet-based mapping application remained complex, and this limited the number of developers and kept the cost of web mapping high. Most of these Internet mapping applications rely on some background cartography, which required purchasing expensive background maps. A significant knowledge in manipulating these datasets and preparing them for delivery is required too (Haklay etal, 2008.).
Most of the national mapping agencies established their own map services at that time, providing access to their geospatial data. Geoportail provides cadastral maps, topographic maps, air photos, orthophotos, and historical maps for the French territories.
Peterson (2011) is highlighting the fact that the Internet is redefining how maps are used. Maps on the Internet have more interactive functionality. They may be designed by interacting with an online database, thus engaging the map user on a higher level than it is possible by a paper map. In addition, the Internet allows us to distribute different kinds of cartographic displays such as animations more easily. The Internet offers the map user both a faster method of map distribution and different forms of human-map interactions. The combination of maps and the Internet is a significant development in cartography, not only for improving the distribution of maps but also because it makes a more interactive form of mapping possible.
Detailed global maps became available only in the last few years. Services like GoogleMaps, Microsoft BingMaps etc. became very popular. Users can mark location points, share them with others, and find location based services.
The European Union’s Inspire directive came into force in 2007 and will be fully implemented probably by 2019 in order to establish a uniform spatial data infrastructure (SGI) for the EU. This will enable the sharing of environmental spatial information among public sector organisations and better facilitate public access to spatial information across Europe. Such information needed for good governance at all levels and in the Internet age citizens can easily access the SDI via Internet based services. With the existing global mapping services or online applications even a not-well-trained citizen can visualize SDI, can combine different data to discover new relationships.
Interface of Geoportal, the map service of IGN, France
2.4 Web 2.0
The actual developments in technology have helped to “democratise” the cartographic communication processes (by means of user-friendly graphics packages for presentation, with GI Systems for geographic data exploration and analysis, and with networks for data provision, advanced geographic data handling, visualisation and representation). This has led to a renewed interest in the discipline of cartography. Therefore, the profession continues to flourish with products still ranging from paper maps to maps and atlases on the Internet, sitting alongside less formal products, like 3D maps, animated maps, and location based services.
Such democratisation may carry its dangers, but, more importantly, increasingly interactive Internet mapping systems are quietly helping people rediscover their mapping instinct, and learn to use Cartography (in its widest sense) rather than just printed maps. Not only are more maps used today, but also there is a growing pool of rudimentary „Cartographers”. Cartography has regained its stature as a discipline of importance, interest, innovation and impact.
It is clear that the landscape of Cartography has changed in the last decade. Map production technology is now readily available to more and the maps themselves are much more varied in terms of their appearance and authority. Patterns of map use have also become much more diverse. In addition, the use of geographic data has been extended and has led to further development in its visualisation and analysis. The role of geographic data in a wide range of human, social, economic, scientific, and environmental activities has dramatically increased. The result is that Cartography is being produced, used, managed, disseminated, analysed, and archived by more people than ever before, through the use of a more diverse set of technologies, operating within a greater number of scientific paradigms than before.
The term web 2.0 was practically first used in 1999 at a conference where the organizers focused on the new generation web services. Although web is not software and it has no versions, everybody understood this term and also understood the real meaning behind it.
In the last 30 years, cartography considerably changed, and we may think of using a similar term for our science: cartography 2.0.
These challenges can only be faced at an international level: the global initiatives, and a range of societal projects promoted by the United Nations, along with the developments leading to a truly „spatially-enabled society”, need to be addressed in a coherent and common manner, in which Cartography is important.
Web 2.0 is first of all a business. The service providers are looking for more income, and they are not afraid of using new, easily marketable terms. This term is really short, unusual and understandable for everybody.
Understanding the importance of web 2.0, we can integrate its most important elements into the cartographic higher education:
• Building mashup applications.
• Blog environments as tools in cartography (mapmaking, map producing, map updating).
• Using wikis as source of information for mapmaking (reliability vs. usability).
• On-line cartographic databases.
Location based services are offered to the users, and maps are the key elements in most of the cartographic services. As the users have special devices (smart phones) with limited screen dimensions and resolution, the maps have to be re-designed for these devices.
The web 2.0 environment has special characteristics related to cartography:
• rapid and perspicacious changes,
• totally transformed user demands,
• different preparation/study required.
If we compare the stages of the “traditional” digital map production and the map creation in the web 2.0 environment, we can highlight the most relevant changes:
phase “traditional” digital map production map production using web services
Planning defining the area, scale defining the level of details, zool levels, functions
Data collections remote sensing, existing maps on-line map services, thematic databases
Preparations scanning, georeferencing, geocoding thematic data conversion
Map editing cartographic process functioning, optimization
Final product proofing, printing testing, documentation
User demands user friendly product platform independent, interactive, collaborative
Cartographers’ knowledge graphic or GIS software, production programming, database, networks
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Cartography and GIS cannot stay independent, they follow the common tendencies. Both areas use the opportunities of the Internet more intensively, because the demands of users are changing rapidly: everybody wants to be present on the web, everybody is looking for information on the web. And most users demand free maps (Konecny & Ormeling, 2005).
Mobile communication is a new challenge for our domain: the maps and applications optimized for the web are important because cartography may target new audiences, which were not map users previously. There are new ideas for cartographers to realize; e.g. to extend the digital map to the third dimension. The third dimension does not simply mean the height of points (elevation model), but in cities a real 3D representation is expected (the real height and outlook of buildings). Software may contain cartographic intelligence to help non-expert users, but to create such programmes the cartographic knowledge is necessary.
For location-based services, maps offer to the users the key elements. The users have special devices with limited screen dimensions and resolutions, so the maps have to be re-designed. The most important and most difficult task is to update the map. It may generate sufficient work for cartographers: they have to develop methods and devices which can make this process as efficient and fast as possible.
Services like GoogleMaps, Microsoft BingMaps provide new types of maps to the users, such as global maps and satellite images. The only question remaining is financing of this work.
The users desire updated maps, but they are apprehensive of being observed by “The Big Brother” (in several countries the implementation of Google StreetView was delayed due to potential privacy problems). Nobody is keen on being controlled, but most of the location-based services require the contribution of users to allow defining their location and sharing it with others. This must be a voluntary decision in order to keep the privacy. To share my actual (or any previous) location has to be my very own decision.
In the future, cartographers have to create methods and techniques to constantly produce and offer maps as efficiently as possible. This is the main challenge for us in the near future.
The term ‘neocartography’ or similarly ‘neogeography’ is increasingly used to express the collaborative nature and integrative possibilities of crowdsourced data in online cartography. Users often generate not only GPS-recorded trajectories but also attributes and substantial technical content; there are many projects in which users make such information available via easily usable predefined web 2.0 interfaces or mash-ups (Buchroithner & Gartner, 2013.).
4. Conclusions
Do today maps support the “controllers” like service providers or large IT companies?
I hope that cartography with the help of the Internet can improve some aspects of everyday life. Tools (software) and geographic data (map) are available, so literally every user (cartographer or non-cartographer) can create his own thematic map and publish it on the web.
Online thematic maps can provide the users with a certain feeling of freedom: they can change the method of visualization, the colours, the number of categories etc. The most difficult task is to make the mapping environment as user friendly as possible. A difficulty, however, is the different level of experience of the users. Should we teach the users to let them know which cartographic design alternatives are available or should we just offer them the most important ones?
The present study was sponsored by the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund
(OTKA No. K100911).
REFERENCES
Buchroithner, M. & Gartner, G. (2013). The New Face of Cartography, GIMInternational 6(27), 22-27.
Cammack, R. (2005) Web Mapping Services: A Tool for Thematic Internet Maps. In
Proceedings of the 21st International Cartographic Conference, A Coruna, Spain. International Cartographic Association Cerba, O, Cepicky, J (2012). Web Services for Thematic Maps. In Online Maps with APIs and WebServices (pp. 141-155), Springer Haklay, M., Singleton, A, & Parker, Ch. (2008). The Neogeography of the GeoWeb, Geography Compass 6(2), 2011-2039, doi:10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00167.x Konecny, M., & Ormeling, F. (2005). The Role of Cartography in the GSDI World. From Pharaohs to Geoinformatics, FIG Working Week 2005 and GSDI-8 Peterson, M.P. (2011). The Tile-Based Mapping Transition in Cartography. In Zentai L., &
Reyes, J. (Eds.), Maps for the Future: Children, Education and Internet (pp. 151-164). Springer
© Laszld Zentai, 2014
