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13. M. Mchedlova. Konfessionalnaya indentichnost [Konfeccionalnaya indentichnost] // Political identity and identity politics: 2 Vol. / [Ed. Igor Semenenko]. Moscow, 2012. Vol. 1. Identity as a category of political science: a glossary of terms and concepts. P. 127.
14. M. Mchedlova. Religioznaya identichnost [Religious Identity] // Political identity and identity politics: 2 Vol. / [Ed. Igor Semenenko]. Moscow, 2012. Vol.1. Identity as a category of political science: a glossary of terms and concepts. P. 123.
15. O. Pavlova. Rossiyskoe musulmanstvo: prizyv k osmysleniyui [Russian Islam: a call to reflection and contextualization] // Social Psychology and Society. 2013. № 2. Pp. 123-124.
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"Islam v sovremennom mire ". Moscow, 2015. Vol. 11, № 2, pp. 75-86.
Yu. Androsova,
Master's Degree Student (Moscow State Linguistic University) GEOPOLITICAL STRATEGY OF TURKEY IN THE TWENTY FIRST CENTURY*
Turkey has become one of the active players in contemporary international relations. In recent months, its actions in connection with the Syrian conflict have become the focus of experts' special attention. However, to understand the logic and the motives of its actions, it is important to consider not only situational, but also constant
* This article is presented in the framework of the cooperation agreement between FSBUN INION RAN and FSBEI IN MSLU on April 12, 2016.
circumstances. In particular, we are talking about the geopolitical strategy of the country, which of late years has become more resilient and consistent.
From the point of view of geopolitics Eurasia can be divided into two components: central lands (Heartland) and marginal lands (Rimland). Many representatives of the classical geopolitics are of the view that the states with access to sea, have a better chance of success than continental states, i.e. the so-called marginal states have a huge advantage over the "central land". For many centuries the seas and oceans have been and still are the trade routes making connection between states thus securing their wealth and prosperity. Such states named in classical geopolitics thalassocracy, are dynamic, mobile, prone to technological development. Their priorities - nomadism (especially navigation), trade, the spirit of individual entrepreneurship. Civilizations of this type develop rapidly and evolve actively, easily change their cultural traits, keeping intact only their internal identity.1
On the basis of these indicators the Republic of Turkey can reasonably be attributed to thalassocracy. The fact, that the country has access to several seas, and possesses strategically important straits, connecting the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, significantly influences the orientation and the content of regional policy of the country.
The peculiarity of the geopolitical position of the Republic of Turkey, representing a single geographic region of Asia Minor, affects the definition and implementation of its domestic and foreign policy. Turkey is at the crossroads of three continents (Europe, Asia, and Africa). The country has maritime borders, the length of which substantially exceeds the length of the land ones.
Besides, the control over Bosporus and Dardanelles makes Turkey a "gateway" to the Eurasian continent and at the same time,
opens an important path from Eurasia to the countries of Europe, Asia and Africa. Thus, according to the theory of the unique role of Rimland in the opposition of Sea and Land, Asia Minor is a key regional zone of the geopolitical model of the world, the critical contact zone of Eurasia2.
As you know, Turkey is washed by four seas: the Black, the Mediterranean, the Marmara and the Aegean, and quite a few countries can boast of such an advantage. This geographical position of Turkey is of twofold consequences: access to the seas and oceans has always been of immense value for the state, however these watery wastes can be the source of in threats for the development of the country as a whole.
During the whole period of its existence, the Turkish Republic sought to determine its role and place not only in the region but in the whole world. This desire is caused by the peculiarities of its geopolitical position, historical way and the dominant ideology. This process of self-determination has not been completed so far. A confirmation of the thesis that Turkey for a number of reasons still fails to find its place, may be the statement of the Turkish historian Taner Timur: "Our society is facing a crisis that can be called a cultural crisis, the problem of self-identification. We could not determine our place in world history and our civilizational identity to the extent which would satisfy ourselves. We constantly address to history and try to understand it".
Officially Turkey has its own state ideology. After the creation of the Turkish Republic in 1923 Mustafa Kemal Attaturk proposed a new national ideology of the country, named Kemalism after its founder . Kemalism is the main structure of ideas and principles of the state, ideologies, economics and social institutions, which are designed to secure full independence, safety and well-being of the Turkish nation at present and in future. Foreign researchers argue that individual and
national support of Kemalism and its protection is a guarantee of development, strength and prosperity of the Turkish state in future4.
The main aim of the reforms initiated by K. Attaturk, was modernization of the country. After the shock, which Turkey experienced after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the country needed radical changes. K. Ataturk chose Westernization as the main vector of development of the country. Westernization assumed borrowing all the progressive achievements of European civilization and their subsequent adaptation to local Turkish conditions5. In its relations with foreign countries, Turkey sought to remain neutral, maneuvering between several countries and continents, what in its turn corresponded to the geopolitical position of the country. The main objective of Kemalism at that time was to withdraw from the objectives and principles of the Ottoman Empire with its mostly aggressive and expansionist policy. All the presidents who came to power after the proclamation of the Turkish Republic followed this concept to a greater or lesser extent.
The collapse of the Soviet Union caused serious geopolitical changes that affected the entire system of international relations as a whole, Turkey was no exclusion: being an integral part of the international community, it faced the need to rethink the value priorities, as well as the priorities of regional policy of the country. After all, newly formed neighboring countries appeared near the borders of Turkey in the Central Asian region, and the situation in the Middle East and the Balkans changed. Therefore, the transformation of the geopolitical role and Turkey's strategy was predetermined.
For Turkey, as well as for the world as a whole, 21 century became a new stage in the development of mankind. In 2001 Turkish Foreign Minister Ahmet Davutoglu, published his study entitled "Strategic Depth" which has become really popular at present. The
book presents a fundamentally new concept of foreign policy of the republic in the new millennium. From the author's point of view, Turkey must learn to maneuver between the interests of Europe, the USA, Russia and the Middle East, to enjoy the benefit of its geopolitical position. The author believes that Turkey should build and develop its foreign policy on the basis on its history. Davutoglu says that in order to become a regional and then a world power, Turkey should carefully consider and verify each step it makes in the direction of any region, whether it is the Middle East, South Caucasus, the Balkans or Europe. Only by consistent and deliberate action Turkey will be able to establish itself as a reliable ally building its regional policy on the basis of the policy of searching mutual benefits.
Turkey entered a new period of its history. The parliamentary elections of 3 November 2002 were won by Justice and Development Party (AKP) headed by Recep Tayyip Erdogan. Its ideology is a fusion of the right Eurasianism, moderate Islamic traditionalism and focus on the US and the EU6. The AKP obtained 366 seats in the Majlis, won the right to form a one-party government, and immediately began to introduce reforms, waited for by the population. In 2010, for the first time since 1982, 24 amendments, designed by the ruling party were made to the Constitution.
The AKP has achieved impressive success in the economy. The fact that Turkey became the 17th economy in the world speaks of considerable merit of the party. The greatest achievement of Turkey during the last 10 years, are, no doubt, economic indicators. For their evaluation it should be taken into account that the country has almost no reserves of oil and gas, the price for gasoline is the highest in Europe. In these circumstances the country shows a strong momentum of growth. In 2010, GDP reached $ 1 trillion, i.e. increased 5 times as compared with the results of 2001. Exports increased more than 3 times
and reached $ 114 billion, and Turkey exports primarily the products of its industry, not raw materials7. Much attention is paid to the development of trade-economic relations with The Middle East, the trade turnover with the countries of this region has increased by 53%8. During the stay of the AKP at power, Turkey has become one of the largest tourist centers in the world.
In its foreign policy, the Justice and Development Party has emphasized the multi-vector course. The following main directions of the country's foreign policy have been developed:
1. Integration of Turkey into the European Union;
2. Implementation of the policy of "zero problems with neighbors";
3. Turkey's transformation into a regional power;
4. Strengthening of cooperation with the United States;
5. Extension of cooperation with Russia;
6. Expansion of ties with African countries.
The difference of geographic and political vectors of the mentioned directions becomes evident even from the list, as well as the actual manifestation of claims to regional leadership and further spread of the country's influence beyond the Western Asia. In particular, as it can be seen from the political reality, it is rather hard for Turkey to maintain steady relations with global and regional actors in the context of constant conflict of interests. In fact, Turkey inevitably has to take the side of the participants of these conflicts. Besides, the real policy of Turkey, its geopolitical strategy for the last few years has been revealing expansionist aspirations still more clearly.
In 2009 the Foreign Minister of Turkey Ahmet Davutoglu suggested to regard the policy of "zero problems with neighbors" as an official vector of the development of relations with the neighboring countries. Officially, the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs explains
the doctrine as follows: Being aware of the fact that development and progress in the today's world can only be achieved through security and stability of the global system, Turkey puts this objective at the center of its foreign policy concept. This approach reflects the policy of "order at home, order in the world", put forward by M. Attatyurk. The policy of "zero problems with neighbors" is the epitome of Turkey's expectations regarding its relations with the neighboring countries. Turkey wants to resolve all the problems in relations with the neighboring countries, or at least minimize them as much as possible"9.
Officially, the democratic principles of organization of society, secularism and the rule of law are proclaimed by the base of the formation and conduct of the country's foreign policy. The level achieved by Turkey in the field of economy and democracy, expanded the range of the country's foreign activity and increased its influence in the area.
But the main feature of Turkey's regional policy is a "fast response" to the events, the country tends not to remain indifferent, waiting for negative effects. Another important feature of Turkey's foreign policy is its foresight. It is declared that Turkey aims to reach the stage of development where all countries will live in prosperity, creating a security and stability zone, beginning from the neighboring countries.
In general, the policy of "zero problems with neighbors", as it follows from the official documents and statements, means actions aimed at ensuring the security of the country through the instruments of "soft power" and exclusively by diplomatic means. In regard to this policy, Davutoglu said: "The country, which is constantly experiencing difficulties in relations with the neighboring countries, is practically unable to build foreign policy at the global and regional levels. ...In the
course of establishing relationships it is necessary to find common ground in culture and economy.
It is necessary to work out a systematic plan for development of economic and cultural relations which would permit to overcome security problems with the neighboring countries"10.
In fact, the said doctrine is not really a guide to action, but it offers one of the variants of implementation of the regional policy. The "neighbors" are not only the countries, located near the borders of Turkey, but also, in a broad sense, those which have cultural and historical affinity and mutual strategic interests with Turkey. It is known that the said foreign policy course had been taken long before A. Davutoglu's doctrine appeared. The first example of it is that Turkey refused to provide assistance to the US and its allies during the intervention to Iraq in 2003. As stated, "this move of Turkey demonstrated to its neighbors and to the world, and even to itself, that Turkey can and will act on its behalf in the matters affecting its foreign policy"11. Such statement is actually a confirmation of the fact that in the first place Ankara analyzes the possible consequences for its country, not allowing the opinions of others to disorientate it.
The aim of current Turkish government is to establish trusting relationships with the countries of the region, in order not only to ensure their safety, but also to minimize the likelihood of arising of new or revival of "old" unresolved conflicts which could destabilize it.
Several years of consistent implementation of the new foreign policy guidelines have given their results. The authority of Turkey in the world and the post-Ottoman space has grown significantly.
Significant success was achieved in relations with the Arab world. In the years of the First World War the Arabs put forth much effort to bring the Ottoman Empire to collapse and up to the present Turkey did not have a serous meaning for them. Over time the situation
has changed significantly. In the Balkans, the Caucasus and Central Asia, Turkey also pursues an active economic and political line. In fact, Turkey aims to become a political and economic leader in the Middle East.
The popularity and successes in domestic and foreign policy, the AKP gained over the years of his reign, increasingly began to form in the minds of the Turkish society a new Imperial thinking, which later became known as neo-Ottomanism. The significantly improved economic situation in the country, closer and more trusting relationships with the players with whom such relations were not maintained earlier, indeed, suggests that the political weight of Turkey in the region is gradually increasing. Turkey is no longer a spectator who prefers just to watch, it is becoming an active participant that feels still more confident on this stage. The contemporary Turkey is not any longer an ordinary country in the region, but it is launching international initiatives, forcing the others to act looking out for the position of the Republic.
There is a belief that the ideas of neo-Ottomanism began to arise almost immediately after the death of M. Ataturk, the founder of the Republic. This policy became more definite at the time of President T. Ozal at the turn of 80-90-ies of the last century. Today, neo-Ottomanism is not just the ideology but the worldview of the Turkish society. Such opinions of the society and the government due, in the first place, to historical nostalgia, when Turkey was not a small state, but an Empire with a vast territory and possessed such power, which is now a secret dream of many Turks.
The term neo-Ottomanism is often associated with the policy of the governing Party of Justice and Development. Experts believe that the incredible foreign policy activities, which was characteristic of Turkey in the region with the arrival of R. Erdogan, is a departure from
the well-established for decades ideology of Kemalism towards the restoration of a prototype of the Ottoman Empire.
Starting serious reforms inside the country, Turkey also started to modernize the country's image in the region. The Republic has developed into an economically developed nation, which makes it the leader among all the others. The proclamation that henceforth Turkey would be a secular state, where previously incompatible trends such as democracy, modernization and Islam will exist in parallel, has caused a sense of respect for it with other countries. The result was that there appeared the notion of the "Turkish model" of a state, proposing the transfer of the Turkish experience to other countries which took the path of change. On the other hand one can suspect here a clear attempt of Ankara to impose its own development path on other states, assuring them of its viability and correctness, and spreading uniform thinking among them. Creating its own kind, the Turkish government facilitates the process of building connections with them and simplifies the process of imposing its own ideas.
The concept of "neo Ottomanism" in the policy of the country has been criticized by its neighbors. It is worth noting that to date, the government of Ankara categorically denies the existence of such a doctrine, and reminds once again that Turkey has the only ideology, chosen nearly a hundred years ago, which is Kemalism. President Erdogan and Prime Minister of Turkey, Ahmet Davutoglu claim, that Turkey has left its "Imperial manners" in the past long ago, and is now developing in a completely different direction. However, many experts argue the opposite.
Returning to the doctrine of "zero problems with neighbors" it can be easily seen that through this policy, Turkey seeks to pursue the policy of soft power for greater confidence on the part of the countries
of the region and greater involvement in their internal processes, which will enable it in future to start controlling them for its own benefit.
It is believed that one of the reasons for the formation of the idea of neo-Ottomanism is a long and difficult way of Turkey to the European Union. After adoption of many Western principles and values, Turkey was still unable to meet the requirements of Europe, which in turn provided stimulated it to rethink the foundations of its foreign policy. A sharp turn towards the countries of Central Asia and the Middle East and the desire to extend their influence in these lands through cultural, economic and political initiatives, in fact completely coincide with the notion of neo-Ottomanism. In this case, A. Davutoglu claims that, due to its historical heritage, Turkey is obliged to be active in the region in all directions.
However, one should distinguish between the new form of neo-Ottomanism from the Ottomanism that existed during the Ottoman Empire. The modern neo-Ottomanism includes Kemalism or Westernization as one of the alternatives for development of the regional policy of the country, not excluding it altogether. Today Turkey actively supports the Turkic peoples of the Central Asian countries, the Moslem population in the Balkans, the Arab population in the Middle East and North Africa.
Despite the denial by the Turkish ruling elite the presence of such neo-Ottoman aspirations, we cannot ignore the fact that the country which was a great Empire in the past will seek, on a subconscious level, to increase its influence, to attain habitats for its spread.
In conclusion, it should be noted that the political doctrines and policies are reflected in real politics, which are constructed according to their settings12. Thus it is evident that the interests of true understanding of the politics of the Turkish Republic, assessment of its prospects
require consideration of the circumstances of geopolitical nature. On their basis certain vectors develop in the regional policy of Turkey, which seeks to have some benefits from relations with the Islamic and Western civilizations. The factor of the historical past of the Ottoman Empire is becoming still more and more prominent.
References
See: Dugin.A.G. The laws of geopolitics. M.: Arctogaia, 2000. http ://arctogaia.com/public/osnovygeo/geop13.htm#6
Doster B. Turkey between two continents, two civilizations and two forces // Geopolitics. Information and analytical edition. Issue 9. Moscow: Moscow State University, 2011. p.5.
Quoted from: Formation of a national idea. Turkey between Europe and Asia.
Results of Europeanization at the end of the 20th century. - Moscow: Institute of
Oriental Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences, Kraft +, 2001.
Whatiskemalism? http://www.erkutaldeniz.com/what-is-kemalism/
Turkey after the First World War http://www.studfiles.ru/preview/4272408/
See Doster .: B., Order op. P. 10.
See: Ibid.
See: Accession to power of the Party of Justice and Development . Its core activity http://mgimotc.ucoz.ru/stuff/istorija/istorija/prikhod_k_vlasti_partii_spravedlivosti_ i_razvitija_osnovnye_napravlenija_ee_dejatelnosti/2-1-0-28
Policy of zero problems with our neighbors http://www.mfa.gov.tr/policy-of-zero-problems-with-our-neighbors.en.mfa
Turkish foreign policy: from status quo to soft power // European stability Initiative. 2009. April. URL: http://www.esiweb.org/pdf/esi_picture_story_-_turkish_foreign_policy_-_april_2009.pdf#page=5 (access date: 20.02.2016) Turkey's Foreign Policy: Zero Problems with Neighbors Revisited https://richardfalk.wordpress.com/2012/02/08/turkeys-foreign-policy-zero-problems-with-neighbors-revisited/
Article provided by the author for publication in the Bulletin "Russia and the Moslem world".
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