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Section6. Economic theory
Nguyen Thi Phuong Thuy, Nghe An province, Vinh city E-mail: ntmphuongvinhuni@gmail.com
GENETICALLY-MODIFIED (GM) CROPS: SUSTAINING OR DESTRUCTING AGRICULTURE - THE CASE OF MONSANTO
Abstract: This research considers the controversial invention of genetically-modified organism (GMO) which is currently widely marketed by Monsanto Inc. has heightened the interests of various opposing opinions of stakeholders from the grocery stores to discussion forums and government meetings between for and against the accelerate production of GMO - especially leaded by Monsanto. Overall, it is about ethics applied in fields of bio-technology, agriculture and business. Whether GMO Crops would bring a promising "Sustainable Agriculture", as published by Monsanto or a destructing invention with interfere in the nature, farmers' business, consumers' health and overall Agriculture industry. This paper would review the nature of GMO, ethics and analyze the case through stakeholders' viewpoints to decide which action should be done for the issue to be resolved.
Keywords: GMO, Monsanto, agriculture, debatable, ethics.
1. Introduction Seeds Inc. (source: Monsanto company). For its GM
The twentieth and now twenty first century products, Monsanto has been aggressively navigate a has witnessed enormous, unsurpassed process of number of PR efforts, one of which is the company
technological development, but it is also when the humanity truly comprehend the social and environmental consequences of those inventions (Korthals & Thompson ed. 2007), one ofwhich is the on-going efforts of bringing genetically-modified crops from laboratory rooms to field environments that led to the controversy regarding ethics, legal and social issues Knols & Bossin [11]. As the fore-front within this industry, Monsanto has been the target of various lawsuits and criticism surrounding these GM crops with nicknames of "Mon Satan who produce Frankenfoods" (Robin 2010).
Monsanto is the leader within herbicides and seeds industry, with original from a chemical business since early 20th century. The company also owns the top seed supplying companies through its American
commitments for Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) of Sustainable Agriculture through innovative science to meet the needs of growing populations and help to enhance people's lives everywhere (Monsanto website). However, in opposition with such commitments, scandals and doubts regarding CSR and ethics have continuously approach Monsanto and its agriculture business, namely: concerns about food safety (impacts of human health), impacts on farmers, shifting power within the agriculture industry (Korthals & Thompson ed. 2007). Hence, this phenomenon raised a head-aching questions: "Whether GMO invention would open the era for Sustainable or Destructing Agriculture?" In order to answer the above question, this research would first review in depth the meaning of ethics and GMO
plants, it then introduce the methods of research and later open a forums of discussions for the issues regarding ethics as well as norms, principles & values surrounding the invention of GMOs. Expectations from stakeholders and alternatives courses of actions is presented to conclude for the best solution. Finally, limitations and conclusion for the research would be a close for this research. The image below shows the percentage of using GMOs in the US in 2010.
2. Literature review
2.1. Ethics
For thousands of years, ethics has always been the branch ofphilosophy which deals with morality that human examines Mika [21]. In another wordings, it also can be understood as the theoretical treatment of moral phenomena (Lewy 1985). In verbal interpretations, t is concerned with distinguishing between right and wrong, between ought to do and not to in humans actions. The question is what we ought be doing and which principles that guides us from doing wrong things O'Leary [37]. Three parts of ethics can be classified into: applied ethics, normative ethics and meta-ethics: Meta-ethics deals with theoretical part, normative invests in more practical approach to create moral standards within different human societies and finally applied ethics for discussion for moral way of acting within controversial situation Mika [21]. Within any context, Kehoe (2008) suggested that the ethics problems are often "clouded" within ambiguity, insufficient information, and multiple viewpoints with conflicting roles of responsibilities. Rather than merely acknowledgement of ethics, ethics should be applied to come alive in practical for a business situation. Alongside with published academic disciplines, ethics is currently use as the label for new inventions in the field of science and technology, in short, it has become a public policy affair Schicktanz et al. [28]. Hence, such trends are where Corporate Sustainable Social Responsibility (CSR) roots, where entities needs to seriously consider the impacts of its actions on the society as a whole Carroll & Buchholtz [5].
2.2. GMO Plants
The rationale behind researches of GMO can be explained through humans' thrust for understanding the biological system and further find application in commerce with high-yield & anti-diseases plants (Parekh 2004); Paarlberg [25]. GMO is part of the agri-food biotechnology - the technology involves manipulation of plants through physical, chemical or biological means, and also remains as the most controversy part of it. As well-acknowledged in biotechnology science, each living organism is constructed from cells, in which comprised of a long, folded DNA molecule (gene) containing hereditary information that only could be transferred for later generations through sexual reproduction form. Yet, this sole natural reproduction is possible only within same-specie individuals. However, on the other hand, biotechnological discoveries have found that except from the arrangement order and numbers of DNA types within each gene, DNA from any organism is stated to be physically and chemically similar Strayer [35]. Therefore, it is possible for scientists to transfer desirable characteristics from organism to organism regardless of species, whether being plants, animals or human, etc Anilakumar & Bawa [1]. It is then imaginable for a tomato plant to contain cold-water fish's gene for cold weather resistance. In 19th century, chemical strategies had assisted farmers to protect crops from overwhelmed growth ofweeds and insects, yet on the other hand, found to have dramatically damaged the environment from soil to water and act as a threat to living creatures - significantly human's lives Zimny & Vries [26]. The possibly of artificially create desirable traits through gene transfers or modifications, which resulted in GMO invention has opened a new horizon for human to avoid such damages. Three major approved classification of GMO are herbicide tolerance (75% - represented by NK603 Roundup herbicide tolerant maize of Monsanto Seralini et al., [31], insect resistance (18% - significantly GM cotton plants contains Bt toxins Schuler et al. [36], and stacked genes (both herbicide and insect tolerance) (7%) Myhr & Traavik [23]. As foreseeable results, GMO was claimed
by its developers to be providing a method of weed and insects control while decreasing damages made to plants, hence increase agriculture productivity. This would first benefits farmers, then further lower food price for end-customers and ideally helps the human race prepared for a booming population. In contrast, the groups of offenders claimed that an application
3. Methodology
In order to conduct this research paper, the Google scholar search engine, specifically secondary data, has been used. It mainly contains academic journals, of which selected journals are taken as supporting demonstrations for the current situation of tobacco industry. Besides, thanks to various sources including research, experiments, investigations and achievements of experts in RMIT online library, additional analytical evidences could also be collected from the search engine of Google scholar. The effect of GMOs would be supported by information and evidence derived from an analysis of past research papers. Through analysis and review of GMS nature as well as case study, the solutions for the issue will subsequently be determined. There are several steps in the approach including:
• Collecting information for the case ofMonsanto;
• Setting AAA approach as an outline for the assessment of the case study;
of GMO provides a threats to human health as well as the diversity of ecosystem. Regardless of options, the fact is that there is inadequate justified scientific information regarding GMO's effects Myhr & Traavik [24] while application ofGMO plants on real-life fields are excessively implemented by giant "Too-big to fail" companies like Monsanto Morris [22].
• Studying academic journals which are related to stakeholders' viewpoints to understand the ethical issues;
• Applying ethical philosophies to fortify the viewpoints.
This paper will propose the optimal alternative course of action of GMOs in association with business, environment and nature, consumers' health and the Agriculture in general.
4. Discussion
4.1. Ethical issues:
Conflict between Intellectual property rights and farmer's rights:
Ever since the first successfully approved patent for the commercial production and distribution of GM seeds - Calgene's Flavr Savr in 1992 as well as conclusion from US Authorities about the nonsignificant harm of GMO to human health in 1987 & 1992, GMO seeds suppliers such as Monsanto, Syngenta, Pioneer have continuously and routinely registered
Table 1. - Example of forcing foreign genes. Reproduced from Imgbuddy 2015
Trait Advantage Sample Product
Rest-Resistance Less damage by insect virus, bbacteria,etc Corn
Herbicide-Resistance Hebicides will kill only weeds, not crops Cotton
Delayed Ripening Can be shipped with less damage Tomato
Miniature size Improved eatsng quality Watermelon
Improved Sweetness Better tasting Sweet peas
Cold-Resistance Withstands freezing and thawing Strawberreies
High Starch Absorbs less oil when fried Potato
Polyester Gene Added Better fiber properties Cotton
Growth Hormone Added Faster growth Salmon
Hepatitis B Virus Protein Added May provide immunity to Hepatitis Banana
for patents their products (seeds) and traits-based proprietary methods, therefore, borrowing the coercive power of authorities, with every selling transaction, seed purchasers are required to sign and strictly comply with ownership & seed usage (Lerner & Lerner ed. 2012). Such actions are prompted by firstly - the competitive global markets where fast innovations along with intellectual property is critical for corporate profits and strategies (Sakar 2004) and secondly - to sustain the qualified GM seeds' genes for future agriculture development through annual funding (Goldsmith 2001). Farmers - seed buyers is required to enter into a multi-term "lease contract" with suppliers, mainly about not to reuse, resell the seeds and further allow 'gene-polices' from agents to enter their lands to examine the proper use of GM seeds. Any breach of contract would result in serious penalty. While farmers' inveterate cultivation methods have usually been saving the best seeds for next growing seasons, such legal efforts from GM seed suppliers have proposed a brand new method of cultivating. According to Shand [32], companies - significantly Monsanto has went beyond their intellectual property rights, in another words, signed an unfair contract to farmers and violate their own fundamental privacy rights through allowing inspectors to monitor & test their crops; dictate farming technologies and add unreasonable post-harvest liability. In details, each individual farmers have to take additional charge of protecting GM plants from any loses, damages to GM products, regardless of intentionally (reuse, resell, etc.) or unintentionally (GM plants got affected by pollens carried by insects, winds to and from nearby non-GMO farms. On the other hand, non GMO seeds users are also affected by this policy, in fact, several infamous case laws was held between Monsanto and organic farmers: the case of Hoffman v Monsanto Canada Inc. (2007), Monsanto Canada Inc. v Schmeiser (2004) (both are won by Monsanto). Moreover, that about 475 lawsuits, exact number unidentified, has been filled by the company against farmers for bleaching the agreed contract could illustrate the monopoly tendency ofMonsanto.
Conflict between commercial benefits and health safety & ecosystem diversity risks:
Application of innovative technologies should be balanced between economical vs. social rationale through cost-benefit principle and ethical aspects Ciliberti & Molinelli [6]. At a level, the GM controversy is primarily about the question whether GMO would propose risks to human health and the environment (Falkner [11]). Even it was official stated by recent reviews on GM food safety that GM products were safe, it is believed that scientific results would never be enough to justify such an important as aspect such as health safety and environmental aspects Seralini et al. [8]. Parekh (2004) stated that adding alternative or addition types of DNA into species genes would purpose undesirable consequences as the environment is complex, environmental conditions are uncontrollable, together with the ecosystem, whether human body would be affected by the planting of GM crops is uncertain but possible. Considerably, GM food is beneficial in growing crops in unfavorable locations, resistant to herbicides and insects, results in foreseeable commercial benefits to farmers, together to Monsanto and later increase crop yields to solve poverty and hunger problems around the globe. However, GM plants are only rather new inventions without much long-term examination on human body Levidow & Carr [20]. Besides, such invention namely Roundup Ready (Roundup herbicide tolerant) crops from Monsanto propose a question mark regarding its DNA gene's ingredients - how can they be that strong to tolerate a toxic herbicide?
Human are evidently helped or hurt by the condition of their environment, hence, they must earn their price for consuming their surrounding environment Holmes [14]. Similar to any artificial subject, this GM technology potentially can directly and indirectly disrupt natural biological diversity. Not only would it claimed to reduce the number of species (as old plants are eliminated and not continued), it also takes effects on behaviors of both pests and ben-
eficial arthropod predators and parasitoids. Arthropod predators and parasitoids can be understood as natural enemies to harmful pests. The change in plant's traits would first affect population of pests and also that of parasitoids and predators, which is called a tri-trophic system as in ecological term Schuler et al. [28]. For example the application of Roundup Ready pants, the number of weeds would decreases, however, its natural arthropod predators - herbivores such as fire ants would decrease within nearby neighbors (Pullaro at al. 2006).
4.2. Norms, principles and values:
Stakeholders' expectations:
Farmers:
GMOs seeds have been modified by forcing the foreign genes such as bacteria, viruses, insects, animals or even humans from one piece to other piece. Farmers have quickly adopted the technology. There are several expectations widely held that GM seeds can assist famers growing the yields together with fewer applications of pesticides and herbicides and increased profits Kruft [18]. However, the technology of GM seeds and the attendant legal issues increase factors that might against a farmer themselves by entering into a multi-term "lease contract" with suppliers. In fact, famers have to pay a huge of money to purchase GMO seeds and have burdened themselves with 'gene-polices'. Famers might expect to reduce price of seed in order to increase cost.
End-Customers
GMOs might be the appropriate choice in the situation of shortage food with high price. GM food is beneficial in growing crops in unfavorable locations, resistant to herbicides and insects, results in foreseeable commercial benefits to farmers, together to Monsanto and later increase crop yields to solve poverty and hunger problems around the globe. However, GM plants are only rather new inventions without much long-term examination on human body Levidow & Carr [20]. End-Customers can not recognize any negative effect on the next two or three generations. Thus, End-Customers expect to
know aspects such as health safety and environmental aspects
4.3. Alternative course of actions and Consequences:
In fact, there are different perspectives in stakeholders' expectations as well as the company's expectations that the ethical issue ofwhether or not maintain producing and developing GMOs will continue a big discussion. Those who are realize the serious perspective of shortage food and the company, who want to make profit, will support to the development of GMOs. However, stakeholders who care for their health and next generation's health will favor to disagree with the argument of "GMOs being Sustainable Agriculture". Two alternative courses of action are discussed. First course of action is based on the viewpoint of those who agree to grow GMOs crops by developing GEOs. After that, the second course of action being organic Farming is represented as a more sustainable alternative to GMOs.
- i. Genetically Edited Organism Crops
In order to satisfy the desire to cover the serious issue of shortage food together with avoiding forcing foreign genes into another entirely unrelated species, CEOs that is more acceptable to the public. According to Kanchiswamy [16], "Genetically Edited Organisms (GEOs) as a preferable alternative to gene-insertion-based Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) crops". GEOs is known as a very specific kind of GMOs because experts produce GEOs by using the bound of plant itself natural genetic information. To be more clarify, plant are employed genetic tweaks including insertion, deletion, or altering existing genes of interest. As a consequence, that is straightforward to recognize that GMOs and GEOs are considered as forms of genetic modification but different characteristic. Obviously, GEOs, by using the bounds of its own natural genetic information, seems to be more natural than GMOs, transgenic crops. Therefore, regarding to Stallard, B2014, "Transfer of foreign genes was the first step to improve our crops, but GEOs will surge
as a 'natural' strategy to use biotechnology for a sustainable agricultural future". Banana, for example of genetic tweaks designed to increase the amounts of natural ingredients, which is known as high in carbs, potassium, magnesium and low glycaemia index, is proposed versions of "super bananas". Super banana is added more vitamin A and in fact, that they are genetically-edited not genetically-modified. Therefore, GEOs product has a very high in productivity with greater quality to compare to the conventional one. Consequently, Genetically edited organism which is create superior phenotypes of fruit crops, might
be reached with larger acceptance by public to compare to genetically modified organisms (GMOs) by its own natural interest genetic.
- ii. A More Sustainable Alternative to GMO's is Organic Farming.
Organic farming is a natural system of production crop and livestock that combines biodiversity, biological activity and biological cycles without using pesticides, fertilizers, genetically modified organisms, antibiotics and growth hormones & Lennarts-son [12]. Recently, many countries in the world trend to develop organic agriculture. (See Figure 1 & 2).
Figure 1. Reproduced from Imgbuddy 2015
Hectares
Figure 2. Reproduced from Helga, Minou & Neil 2010
However, by apply the method of this nature system, there are some advantages and disadvantages. According to BBC News (2015), In terms of Advantages, firstly, without using of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides, Organic farm system can protect the environment, farm workers 'health and reduce the pollution of ground water. Furthermore, by no choosing to use the manure, the soil might be protect in better situation. Moreover, Organic products are fresh and healthier food to compare to non-organic products. In terms of disadvantages, firstly, organic farmers have to consider in many factors such as crops, fertility building, weed management, pests, disease and protection cropping.
Obviously, organic products has higher damaged by pests and diseases. Furthermore, cost for labour is higher because weeds are often removed mechanically. Moreover, building protective cropping is an important part of organic production such as crop covers, clothes/low-tunnels, polytunnels, greenhouse cropping. (see Figure 2.). Therefore, products produced organically are more expensive up to 40% more Gathers & Lennartsson [12]. Furthermore, the crop yield of organic agriculture is lower approximately 20% to compare to non-organic farming Gathers & Lennartsson [12]. Organic farming cannot satisfy food that is required because of the booming of world's population.
mos1 organic agricultural land 200(
Figure 4. Reproduced from Helga, Minou & Neil 2010
4.4. Best course of action and Decision:
The best course of action is the one that occur together without problems or conflict with the ethical norms and values. Based on two alternative course of actions above, the best ethical decision is developing Genetically Edited Organism Crops. According to Kanchiswamy [16] GEOs generates avoiding worried that the unnatural (foreign) genes can result in unforeseen consequences. Moreover, due to the booming of populations, GEO techniques might be the best appropriate solution.
5. Limitation
It is undeniable that there exist some limitations in the research albeit a careful preparation in depth. First of all, due to the limit of time, the research could only examine some typical aspects of the issue, of which some are not fully presented in details.
Moreover, the number of prior research for the topic of GMOs is, in fact, not large enough. Therefore, some documents are subjective to the stakeholders' viewpoints which may not be practical. GMOs is still a new topic for the masses. Furthermore, the use of
GMOs does not indeed produce immediate impacts, so it is quite challenging to address negative effects directly caused by it. for further research and development attention in the future.
6. Conclusion
In conclusion, although GMOs is an effective solution for shortage food because of the booming of population, it still lead to an unforeseen consequences for environment and human health. In Monsanto case, GMOs is produced to cover the issue of shortage food as well as to reduce the price of food. However, GMO was claimed by its developers to be providing a method of weed and insects control while decreasing damages made to plants, hence increase agriculture productivity.
This would first benefits farmers, then further lower food price for end-customers and ideally helps the human race prepared for a booming population. In contrast, the groups of offenders claimed that an application of GMO provides a threats to human health as well as the diversity of ecosystem. Therefore, based on the best public's interest, GMOs is produced unethically because it harms society's health and environment. An ethical person in Monsanto case will very likely to choose developing GEOs because this method satisfies the desire to cover the serious issue of shortage food together with avoiding forcing foreign genes into another entirely unrelated species. CEOs that is more acceptable to the public.
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