CC BY
8
Hares Saiq
hares saiq@yahoo.com Gender Training and Economic Progress: The Overview of Main Studies
Tula State Lev Tolstoy Pedagogical University
postgraduate student
Харес Саик
Гендерное обучение и экономический прогресс: обзор основных исследований
Тульский государственный педагогический университет им. Л.Н. Толстого аспирант
Abstract
The article focuses on both the causes and consequences of socio-economic inequality between men and women. Many factors influence on the solution of this problem, but one of the most important is education. No data can fully and directly reflect the nature of the influence of women's education on the growth of their level of well-being and the development of the economy as a whole. But it is quite reliably possible to judge the direct and indirect consequences. Women's education has the greatest impact on the economic progress of low-income countries. Therefore, in this study, we focused on the correlation between female education and the Afghan economy. The study looks at a national rather than a global approach to gain new insights into this issue.
Keywords: Gender training, Economic Progress, Female Education, Afghanistan, Labour Productivity
В статье рассмотрены как причины, так и последствия социально -экономического неравенства между мужчинами и женщинами. На решение этой проблемы влияют многие факторы, но один из существенных -образование. Никакие данные не могут полностью и непосредственно отразить характер влияния образования женщин на рост уровня их благосостояния и развитие экономики в целом. Но вполне достоверно можно судить о прямых и косвенных последствиях. В наибольшей степени женское образование оказывает влияние на экономический прогресс стран с низким уровнем доходов населения. Поэтому в данном исследовании мы сосредоточили внимание на корреляции между женским образованием и экономикой Афганистана. Исследование рассматривает скорее национальный, чем глобальный подход, чтобы получить новые факты по этому вопросу.
Ключевые слова: гендерное обучение, экономический прогресс, женское образование, Афганистан.
Introduction
Afghanistan's economy has been significantly impacted by recent political developments. Even before the Taliban took power in August, Afghanistan's economy was in serious trouble. If international grant funds, offshore assets, and financial links are rapidly depleted, economic recession, increased poverty, and increased macroeconomic instability are all possible effects. Afghanistan's economy and growth were already at risk prior to the collapse of the government. In August 2021, as security conditions deteriorated and severe drought conditions hindered agricultural production in Afghanistan, economic development decreased. Since the Taliban took control, output has declined dramatically as a result of the abrupt stop of donor and government spending, trade challenges, and bank failures. Inflation began to accelerate in the first six months of2021. Energy expenses increased by 13% in the first half of the year, in line with global trends. The Taliban's control of critical borders and transportation hubs increased price spikes in food and gasoline in Afghanistan. Currency depreciation, hoarding, and delays in international trade all contributed to a spike in inflation following the Taliban's takeover. This concept of economic growth is commonly recognised by economists, who believe that it is possible to reach the highest possible level of economic system development, as measured by positive changes in key national account and production indices, as well as growing socioeconomic levels. It's the structure, factors, and sources all have an effect on the eventual quality and stability of economic growth. It is critical for economic success that gender equality be analysed as an unequal process that impacts on economic policy orientation. While the quality and stability of major national account indicators are critical, they are only one piece of the puzzle for deciding whether an economy is growing or not. Economic growth at the systemic level cannot be influenced on by the actions of particular organisations.
Economic policy, including gender equality policies, must be considered holistically in order to maximise economic growth. When men and women have disparate levels of education, gender disparities in education can have a number of detrimental effects on growth and production. There is an inefficient allocation of resources as a result of the gender disparity in educational attainment (2002 contends that the gender gap in education is an obstacle to employment and technological advancement). Cross-country data on the impact of female education on production are inconclusive. Some researchers, such as Hill and King [1, 2], have used cross-country data to demonstrate that women's education increases output, while Barro and Lee [3] and their subsequent contributions found that women's education has a negative effect on growth and male education has a positive effect on growth. According to provincial-level statistics,
this Turkish study discovered that female education has a favourable effect on productivity, whereas male education has a neutral or minor effect. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that the gender disparity in educational attainment has a negative influence on production. The educational gender divide has a negative effect on productivity in both existing and emerging sectors, highlighting the critical role of female education in Afghanistan's development and progress.
Caselli, Esquivel, and Lefort [4] originally exposed these vulnerabilities during the Barro and Lee investigations. They stated that growth equations do not account for men's and women's educational achievement. Country-specific effects could have been interpreted incorrectly, resulting in an omitted variable bias. This could also be the result of an omission of the likelihood that education and growth are related. The researchers solved the simultaneous problem using both GMM estimation, which eliminates country-specific effects, and instrumental variable estimation, which uses lagged values of the independent variables. For this panel study, data from 97 nations were acquired from crosscountry observations done at five-year intervals between 1960 and 1985. The findings were calculated using Mankiw, Romer, and Weil [5] and Barro-Lee generic estimating equations. Their findings were diametrically opposed to those of Barro and Lee. Barro and Lee's analysis discovered a trend in favour of female education while indicating a trend in favour of male education, reversing the previous study's conclusions. Indeed, "both findings are surprising, taking into account the fact that no hypothesis is consistent with distinct signals for male and female human capital". Yamarik and Ghosh [6], as well as Forbes [7], employ a system GMM estimator to account for missing variables and endogeneity biases. Their findings corroborate ours, and they conclude that female education has a statistically significant positive effect on development. In the case of men's education, either no effect (Forbes) or a statistically significant effect on growth was discovered. This study will examine the effect of gender equality on economic growth in Afghanistan's contemporary market. The project's objective mandates that the following challenges be addressed: the first stage in this process is to gather data and compare the results of these efforts in order to determine the precise role and influence of gender equality on the country's economic growth. The second phase is to determine the impact of gender equality on the country's economic growth.
Research methodology
Although this topic has a strong theoretical and methodological base in international practise, it is a relatively recent subject of study for domestic economic growth [8]. Through a thorough analysis of trustworthy literary sources, this study identified gender differences in the Afghanistan Republic's labour market potential (KR). Through comparison and synthesis, gender equality in the Afghanistan Republic was established, and practical recommendations for ensuring the country's stable economic growth were made as a result. The researchers are examining the socioeconomic situation of men and women in the United States as part of the study.
Literature Review
Human development demonstrates, as Pearse and Connell point out, that economic growth is necessary but insufficient for raising living standards. In all production interactions, there has been a trend away from heavy manual labour toward mental and creative labour dominance. State initiatives should focus on driving workplace transformation and fostering economic growth. Social policy alone is incapable of developing an individual's abilities and potential. The topic of gender imbalance in the workplace is receiving increased attention. When the UN launched, He for She in 2015, the initiative garnered billions of social media likes. This is contradicted by The Economist, a reputable publication, which notes that as women become more in demand in the workforce, men's support needs decrease. According to researchers such as M. Neumann and S. Lathem [9], gender equality is critical for social justice and the equitable distribution of wealth and resources.
Gender equality, according to Pettit and Hook [10], is a critical component of a three-dimensional model of civilization development that adheres to the principles of constancy (rather than the two-dimensional model, based on the ecological and economic dimensions). The population of Afghanistan has consistently exhibited a real desire to develop gender equality, resulting in continuous socioeconomic improvement. Throughout the second decade of the 1990s, research has concentrated on formulating and implementing gender policies and ensuring equal rights and justice for women and men. Since the turn of the century, there has been an increase in the study of gender's influence on social and economic development. There is a dearth of comprehensive research on the relationship between gender equality and societal transformation. A varied range of activities must be conducted to progress society and the economy. Adams and Miller [11] have mandated gender equality as a social norm as a key indicator of social progress since the turn of the twenty-first century. According to Smith-Doer, Vardi, and Kroisant's study [12], ensuring gender equality has emerged as a critical priority for the twenty-first century's global progress. Equal legal status and implementation opportunities for men and women are defined by the authors as "gender equality," which enables men and women to engage equally in society's diverse sectors. According to Williams and George-Jackson [13], this is the bedrock of women's and men's equal rights: the absence of privileges or restrictions based on sex or gender identity.
Fig 1. Diversity Management Practices in RDI
Human potential was widely acknowledged as the primary aim and driving force for social and economic growth toward the end of the twentieth century [14]. Sustainability is defined in economic and social development as stable economic growth with equitable provision for present and future generations' needs, as well as participation by all citizens and population groups in achieving or limiting unsustainable production and consumption patterns. Kizilca [15] argues that sustainable economic growth and women's empowerment are inextricably linked if they are to benefit all people equally today and in the future. According to Bandara, achieving gender equality in economic, social, and political terms is currently unattainable [16]. Economically engaged communities have a greater chance of thriving and prospering when both sexes participate in all facets of society and maximise their potential.
The concept of economic growth and its affecting factors
Economic growth throughout the first millennium was re-examined, as was the relationship between gender equality in economics and growth. In other words, a country cannot prosper economically if its population does not maximise its potential. Afghanistan's population is more than half female, and as a result, the degree of political and economic decision-making should reflect this. Economic growth will remain a concept in perpetuity as long as economists continue to conduct research on poverty reduction and economic development. In quantitative terms, it depicts the growth of GDP and GDP per capita, as well as the volume indicators for various industries and regions of an economy (such as industrial and agricultural production outputs). Along with the increase of the end product, economic growth has a social and environmental consequence. When all market supply parameters react to changes in the economic indicators that signal demand (cash earnings and consumer spending, market price levels), a new long-
term economic development occurs. Thus, economic development contributes to economic dynamics while also serving as a barometer of economic success. Certain types of economic growth are not synonymous with genuine growth; if genuine growth is accompanied with the degradation of fixed assets, a reduction in worker quality and qualifications, and a decline in health and living standards, the economy will eventually collapse and deteriorate. Economic growth can be viewed as a multi-factor process within the economic system's reproduction framework, as it incorporates both exogenous and endogenous components. This category includes welfare and national wealth, as well as changes in the state's economy as a result of dynamic quantitative achievement and qualitative changes.
Economic structural reforms benefit both output and human capital. Economic development improves in quality as a post-industrial society ages. Investments in people as producers and consumers of all sorts of material and spiritual wealth necessitate an equivalent increase in information in order for the economy to flourish efficiently in this manner. Economic transformations will be profound as a result of this reorientation of educational and research priorities in critical sectors of the economy. Numerous variables affect social reproduction, including the rate of economic change and the type of economic growth [17]. This strategy enables the observation of economic growth. The economic literature has explored some of the factors that influence on economic growth, including GDP growth, production resources, economic growth drivers, and some of the most fundamental aspects of growth potential. Numerous schools and trends have addressed these issues, examining the impact of numerous variables on economic development in specific historical eras and geographic locations, as well as the most rational ways to combine them and identify new sources of growth. Due to the unstable economy, low growth, inflation, and a decline in investment flow, among other issues, these circumstances amplify the negative influence on economic growth of numerous underlying causes, making it impossible to forecast the state's long-term development. As a result, implementing the country's economic and social development objectives and goals becomes more challenging. It is impossible to exaggerate the critical nature of fast, accurate, and continuous socioeconomic monitoring and management. Another critical step is to select the monitoring goal that most accurately reflects the actual condition. The term "equality" is used in this study to refer to it.
Afghanistan's economic and gender statistics are inextricably linked
In 1958, psychotherapist Robert Stoller raised the question of gender equality and economic growth in Afghanistan for the first time, but there are other moving components to consider. Notably, until the 1970s and 1980s, when foreign works began to appear in Soviet psychology, the subject of gender was underrepresented. Soviet psychology began investigating them in terms of "gender differences" only in the 1990s. These research paid insufficient attention to the gender implications of possible labour use and the strategies of resolving
gender disparities in connection to economic growth.It is included in the UN's "Human Development Report" (UN, http://hdr.undp.org/en/2018). We calculated the Human Development Index Adjusted for Inequality using GDP and GNI per capita as indicators of Afghanistan's economic health and these two indices as indicators of gender equality, according to UN data (IHDI). A link was discovered between women's life expectancy and the percentage of women with at least a secondary education in the Afghanistan Republic throughout the same time period (percent in age 25 and older).Using index data from 2015-2017, we assessed Afghanistan's progress toward gender equality and economic development. (See Figs. 2 and 3).
Year 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
GNI (million dollars) 2764 2927 3026 3086 3113
GDP (million dollars) 1166 1270 1267 1109 1110
Gender Inequality Index 0.38 0.383 0.38 0.393 0.392
Gender Development Index 0.959 0.958 0.961 0.966 0.96
Fig 2: Gender equality status in Afghanistan
Gender Inequality Index Gender Development Index Women Expectancy Index Female Population With Secondary Education
GDP -0.65248 -0.53057 -0.28181 -0,39032
GNI 0.78468 0.34271 0.97905 0.91773
Fig 3. GDP and GNI for Afghanistan
According to an investigation, there is a 0.34 correlation between gender development indices and Afghanistan's GDP. The Gender Inequality Index (GII) and the GNI have a correlation of 0.784. GDP appears to have a negative link with gender inequality and gender progress in a country. Inadequate access to
health care and education for women may contribute to these results. GDP decreases when more people become involved in economic management and the economy, whereas GNI has a little impact on GDP. When there is a relationship between GDP and inequality, gender has a negative effect on GNI. A correlation coefficient of 0.98 suggests a strong association between women's life expectancy and the GNI index. The GDP of the Afghanistan Republic and the educational attainment of women are positively associated, with a correlation index of 0.91. Between GNI and educational attainment, this group of persons appears to have a substantial correlation. According to econometric models, a 1% increase in this index results in a $345 increase in GNI. As a result, as our society grows more equitable, it becomes more prosperous, and as a result, individuals become active in gender equity. Inequality increases a society's commitment to globalisation while reducing its capacity to manage crises [18].
Gender equality is a Contentious Issue
Gender equality is a concept that refers to men and women being treated equally. Gender equality seeks to achieve equality of position for both sexes. Women and men should therefore be treated equally in the workplace, have equal access to all human rights, and have equal opportunity for advancement in the economy, politics, and society. Not only do women and men have equal rights, but they also have equal access to and opportunities to use those rights. Due to gender inequality, both women and men are unable to reach their full potential in society [19]. Gender disparity has a detrimental influence on the well-being and social development of people by impeding economic progress and prosperity through effective utilisation of human resources. In terms of economic efficiency, the disparity between men and women is significant.
• Limits human potential and diminishes the joy of live.
• Economic growth is stymied.
• Injures the political process.
• Efficiencies in development and poverty alleviation are dwindling.
According to Rigg and colleagues [20], gender equality (inequality) has a
substantial impact on the United States. In this context, American writers make a distinction between decision-making approaches. In France, Greece, and Slovenia, women and men enjoy varying degrees of decision-making authority. The majority of government leadership positions are held by men, with only a few held by women. Women make up an embarrassingly small number of workers in historically male-dominated professions (such as education, culture, and social welfare). British scholars have likewise established that economic engagement in society is unequal. Men and women have varying tasks, engage in varying economic activities, hold varying positions, and earn varying wages as a result of their gender roles and obligations. Men and women cannot work together, even in countries where women have retained their place in the workforce. In Afghanistan, and the CIS republics, a diverse range of employment
possibilities and pay are available. According to government statistics, women earn 20%-25% less than men in the same occupation in Afghanistan (Ministry of Economy in the Afghanistan Republic 02.15.19).
Women are more likely to work in offices or the service sector than males are, rather than in transportation or manufacturing. Regardless of the industry in which you work, women are always ranked lower and earn less than men. Almost always, women get paid less than males for performing the same work. Men and women who work in many areas of the economy have unique issues juggling work and family obligations. Unemployment has a distinct effect on men and women depending on their stage of life. We must bear in mind that Afghanistan is a low-income country that relies heavily on mining and agriculture, as well as remittances from individuals who work abroad. Afghanistan has achieved significant progress since gaining independence in 1991. Afghanistan monetary conditions are improving, but the country's openness to trade and reliance on its neighbours (especially Russia) keep it sensitive to external changes [21]. Afghanistan's recent development has been aimed at poverty reduction while also diversifying the economy.
Disparity in the distribution of great education has exacerbated the Afghanistan Republic's economic inequality. To fulfil the needs of the modern economy, education and training must be improved in terms of quality and relevance, as well as equal opportunities for men and women in education and training. Gender equality demands increasing women's political participation. Women worked 47.4 percent of the time in 2018, compared to 65.77 percent of men, according to a breakdown of the economically active population and those employed and jobless in 2018. As a result, women have a 14.3 percent unemployment rate, which is 3.1 percent greater than men's. Women's unemployment increased by 4.5 percentage points in 2017, while male unemployment increased by 5 percentage points. Women's access to education has an effect on the country's gender status [22]. The Afghanistan Republic's educational system has made significant strides. Numerous colleges and universities enrol a sizable number of female students. Despite the fact that women's completion of higher education is not as high as men's, it is still higher than men's. A college degree does not guarantee that a woman would be able to find work, earn money, advance in her career, or rise in society in Afghanistan. Several of the most significant programmes aiming at achieving gender equity in education include the following: For the years 2012-2020, the Afghanistan Republic has developed an education and export development strategy (Fig 4).
Fig 4. Gender Equality in Education
Investments in power generation in the Afghanistan Republic between 2012 and 2017; a draught strategy for agricultural growth in the country until 2020; a draught concept for environmental protection in the country until 2017; a medium-term tourism development plan until 2017; and a draught strategy for agricultural growth in the country until 2020; Women and men face substantially different health concerns, as was established during the early stages of developing gender statistics based on biological and social characteristics [23]. Both sexes have distinct healthcare needs as a result of their disparate lifestyles. Women and men are affected by a variety of factors, including disease prevalence and the ability to prevent and treat disease [24]. As one of the greatest maternal mortality countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, the countries also has one of the region's highest rates of child mortality (according to the NSC, in 2012 it was 49.1 per 100,000 children born alive; for comparison, in Sweden, this figure does not exceed 3.0). In 2012, 52.8 percent of all women of reproductive age in Afghanistan were anaemic, indicating the prevalence of pregnant anaemia. Life expectancy also varies by gender, with males living an average of 8-12 years less than females. Male drunkenness has an eightfold effect on females, according to this data. In the United States, about four times as many men as women die of natural causes or suicide while still in their prime working years. Male disability rates are 19% higher than female disability rates due to work-related injuries, while male disability rates are 18 times higher due to professional disease. Males die from tuberculosis at a rate 2.6 times that of females. Girls and women have fewer opportunities to participate in sports than men do, as the majority of sports facilities and organisations are geared toward male interests. As a result, women and men have distinct roles in society, possess distinct resources, and are impacted differently by politics and other events. If inequalities between men and women are not adequately addressed in the political process, the current system of inequality may persist or worsen.
Conclusion
To revitalise the Afghanistan Republic's economy qualitatively, a new economic model based on gender equality is required. Long-term changes in real production relative to natural values can be achieved, in our opinion, by developing women's human capital and by developing new ways of structuring social sectors with a higher quality of labour and a greater accumulation of social capital. Training packages should be well-preserved considering local contexts, but current materials can be adapted sensitively. They require existing continuous support for teachers to be competent enough for changing pedagogies and addressing the taken-for-granted gender inequalities in which they live. One approach to create this support might be via developing teacher networks to work collectively on new pedagogies via school groups and teachers' centres. Networks should be developed through sustaining training and learning for education officials and teachers. It further relies on developing new communication networks, and the learning exchange and experience for current policy development and enhanced practice. Economic growth, according to our view, should be defined as: Based on this data, a successful transition to a new economic growth model will require gender equality and increased investment in human capital, which women may represent in the future.
References
1. Hill, M. A., & King, E. M. (1993). Women's education in developing countries: An overview. Women's education in developing countries: Barriers, benefits and policies, 1-50.
2. Hill, M. A., & King, E. (1995). Women's education and economic well-being. Feminist Economics, 1(2), 21-46.
3. Barro, R. J., & Lee, J. W. (1994, June). Sources of economic growth. In Carnegie-Rochester conference series on public policy (Vol. 40, pp. 146). North-Holland.
4. Caselli, F., Esquivel, G., & Lefort, F. (1996). Reopening the convergence debate: a new look at cross-country growth empirics. Journal of economic growth, 1(3), 363-389.
5. Mankiw, N. G., Romer, D., & Weil, D. N. (1992). A contribution to the empirics of economic growth. The quarterly journal of economics, 107(2),
6. Yamarik, S., & Ghosh, S. (2004). Are regional trading arrangements trade creating? An application of extreme bounds analysis. Journal of International Economics, 63(2).
7. Forbes, K. J. (2000). A reassessment of the relationship between inequality and growth. American economic review, 90(4), 869-887.
8. Hughes, R. (2015). An investigation into the longitudinal identity trajectories of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and
407-437.
Engineering,
21(3),
181-213.
https: //doi. org/10.1615/JWomenMinorScienEng.2015013035
9. Neumann, M. D., Lathem, S. A., & Fitzgerald-Riker, M. (2016). Resisting cultural expectations: Women remaining as civil and environment engineering majors. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 22(2), 139-158. https ://doi.org/10.1615/JWomenMinorScienEng.2016013949
10.Pettit, B., & Hook, J. L. (2009). Gendered tradeoffs: Women, family, and workplace inequality in twenty-one countries. Russell Sage Foundation.
11.Adams, S., & Miller, S. R. (2016). The scissor effect: Challenges and response strategies for encouraging Moroccan women to pursue engineering and science careers. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 22(3), 245-11. https ://doi.org/10.1615/JWomenMinorScienEng.2016011170
12.Smith-Doerr, L., Vardi, I., & Croissant, J. (2016). Doing gender and responsibility: Scientists and engineers talk about their work. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 22(1), 49-68.
13.Williams, M. M., & George-Jackson, C. E. (2014). Using and doing science: Gender, self-efficacy, and science identity of undergraduate students in stem. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 20(2), 99-126. https://doi.org/10.1615/ JWomenMinorScienEng.2014004477
14.Buser, T., Oosterbeek, H., & Niederle, M. (2014). Gender, competitiveness, and career choices. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 129(3), 1409-1447. https://doi.org/10.1093/qie/qiu009
15.Kizilca, F. K. (2016). Breaking with dogma: Unorthodox consumption patterns and women's labor market outcomes in Turkey. Feminist Economics, 22(4), 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2016.1154976
16.Bandara, A. (2015). The economic cost of gender gaps in effective labor: Africa's missing growth reserve. Feminist Economics, 21(2), 162-186. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2014.986153
17.Kabeer, N. (2016). Gender equality, economic growth, and women's agency: The "Endless variety" and "Monotonous similarity" of patriarchal constraints. Feminist Economics, 22(1), 295-321. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1090009
18.Kochkina, N., & Stavytskyy, A. (2017). Gender factors and economic growth: Is there a correlation. Bridges, 1, 15-18.
19.Nix, S., Roberts, K. L., & Hughes, R. M. (2016). Female undergraduate stem persistence: A focus on the role of living and learning communities. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 22(4), 349-374. https: //doi. org/10.1615/JWomenMinorScienEng.2016016349
https: //doi. org/10.1615/JWomenMinorScienEng
21.OECD, (2018). The report was approved at the meeting of the OECD Network on July 4, 2018 in Paris, OECD-ACN-Kyrgyzstan-4th-Round-Monitoring-Report-2018-RUS. pdf 22.Wood, C. V., McGee, R., & Campbell, P. B. (2016). An incredibly steep hill': How gender,race,and class shape perspectives on academic careers among beginning biomedical PhD students. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 22 (2), 159-181. https ://doi.org/10.1615/ JWomenMinorScienEng.2016014000 23.Scott, A., & Martin, A. (2014). Perceived barriers to higher education in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 20(3), 235-256. https://doi. org/10.1615/JWomenMinorScienEng.2014006999 24.Ko, L. T., Kachchaf, R. R., Ong, M., & Hodari, A. K. (2014). Agency of women of color in physics and astronomy: Strategies for persistence and success. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 20(2), 171-195.
https://doi.org/10.1615/JWomenMinorScienEng.2014008198
