CC BY
442
CO^A.HbHA OIHOCOOIH TA OIHOCOOIH ICTOPII
UDC 314.962: 091
S. V. STOROZHUK1*, I. M. HOYAN2
1National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine (Kyiv), e-mail [email protected], ORCID 0000-0002-7947-6268
2Vasyl Stefanyk Pre-Carpathian National University (Ivano-Frankivsk), e-mail [email protected], ORCID 0000-0003-2548-0488
GENDER EQUALITY AS A MODERN PHENOMENON
Purpose of the work. Forming the axiological system of Western society, with the intentions to establish gender equality as a guarantee of a just society being taken into account, on the one hand, and preserving the traditional gender stereotypes inherent to patriarchal gender roles in a considerable part of the world, on the other hand, is actualizing the study of the factors that have contributed to realizing the problem of gender inequality and discrimination. Therefore, the purpose of our study is to highlight the factors that stipulated the awareness of gender equality in European social and cultural space, while leaving alive the traditional gender values in a number of other cultural environments. Methodology of the study is determined by interdisciplinary approach involving the use of general scientific methods such as analysis, synthesis, generalization, etc. The leading role belonged to the principle of the historical and logical unity. At the same time the study applies the basic principles of philosophical hermeneutics and the contextual analysis method. Originality lies in putting forward the new theoretical statements aimed to show that in the ancient and premodern society, gender inequality and discrimination did not exist, because at that time gender relations were considered either as a result of the biological characteristics of a human body, or were explained by worldview ideas about the origin and structural features of the world, prevailing in a specific historical dimension. Consequently, gender roles were taken for granted and were not subject to any doubt. Conclusions. Despite all the worldview shifts that had been taking place in the pre-modern era social outlook, nevertheless, as history has shown, they failed to generate sufficient philosophical foundations either for recognizing the equality of women, or changing their social, legal and political status. This led to accumulating the unconscious internal resistance to dominant social standards, which was expressed primarily in behavioural arbitrariness that, whatsoever had not been acquiring any openness by the beginning of industrialization. The latter, having destroyed rural communities with their inherent division of labour and lifestyle, which eventually weakened significantly the mythological social structures, has opened an opportunity not only to understand but also to commence the fight for the recognition of gender equality.
Keywords: gender; gender equality; gender discrimination; industrialization; social contract
Introduction
Over the last century the problem of social equality has been occupying one of the central positions not only in intellectual discourse, but in social practices as well. Representatives of the scientific community, politicians and public figures direct their efforts to combat all forms of social inequality. This intention at the international level for the first time was clearly manifested in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by
the UN General Assembly on December 10, 1948. Thus, Article 2 of the document, on the one hand, clearly outlined the factors underlying social inequality, namely "race, colour of skin, sex, language, religion, political or other opinions, national or social origin, property, birth or other position" [7] and that could result in "uprisings" and "barbaric acts" and, on the other hand, the document proposed a constructive program of international activities directed towards overcoming all forms of social inequality for "justice and peace." Similar
© S. V. Storozhuk, I. M. Hoyan, 2017
intention is observed in the Statute of the Council of Europe (1949), its Art. 3 stating that every "member of the Council of Europe shall accept by all means the principles of the rule of law and human rights and fundamental freedoms by all individuals under its jurisdiction" [21].
The documents mentioned above clearly show that it was the overcoming of all forms of inequality at that time that began to be looked upon as a guarantee of peace and well-being of the European society. Along with this, for the first time they do fix the outstanding role of the problem of gender equality in the development of a just egalitarian society. Meanwhile, the very posing of this question is the evidence of not only the gender discrimination existing in that society, but also the realization of the fact that the latter may disrupt normal development and a fortiori "progress" of society, as it has been contradicting the principles of equality, democracy and freedom declared by the European international community since the early XIX century.
The activities launched by the UN and the ratification of the Universal Declaration and the implementation of its provisions in practical life by all its representatives, in our opinion, was of utmost importance, mainly because of awareness of the problem of gender inequality in Western European cultural space, laying the groundwork for finding ways for its overcoming. Indeed, despite the repeated declaration of the principle of "equality of men and women" [7] in different international instruments, or the "fundamental freedoms of all individuals" [21], the situation was quite different in reality, because not in all the countries that were the signatories to the General declaration, women received the right to vote. For example, in Greece only in 1956 women were able to take part in parliamentary elections and the constitutional affirmation of equality of men and women was legally enshrined in the Constitution only in 1975. The situation in Spain, Portugal and some parts of Switzerland was not better for a long time. In addition, almost up to the May events in France in 1968 serious restrictions for women in their access to higher education and especially the right to hold political and professional leadership positions that clearly dismantled not only the slogan of the May Revolution aimed at emancipation were also manifested [8], as well as covered various UNESCO documents [34].
The restrictions indicated were caused by the fact that after the Second World War, the Western world drew their attention to key issues related to peace, harmony and prosperity, which was clearly evident in the Preambles to the majority of international documents and originality of international policy, which at that time was focused on the formation of the international communities (as an example we could especially mention the ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community) formed in 1951), which was the foundation for preventing war in the future. Along with the hope for establishing a lasting peace and security, and consequently economic prosperity the illusion was gaining shape that in the new world there will not be any place for social protests and discontent.
The generation of the seemingly new axiologi-cal system in postwar Europe, laid not only ideological, but also practical foundation for the harmonious development of society. Consequently, women who had to take the jobs of men to work in offices and factories during the war, "received an opportunity" to return to the familiar "natural" occupation and find pleasure in the traditional family surrounding without worrying about their ambitions and rights in the public sphere. To this end, public opinion in America and Europe begin to magnify the image of woman as a homemaker or seductive beauty. This idea was developed by all the media and popular culture. In this context it is worth recalling the cinematograph of the 1950s, and, first of all, the films of Douglas Kirk, among them the film "All that Heaven allows" (1955) ranking one of the central places. Here as many other films, the image of a housewife, with her dreams and desires, highlights the typical American of the 1950s. In fact, D. Kirk lifted province to the status of absolute, revived the "perfect home" from the advertising picture [1, 24], where ruddy smart kids have learned their homework and a perfect mom serves cocktail (shirt or other) to a model gentleman. Western society and especially American one worked hard to air the idea of a dream for American housewife where her husband is fed, children are healthy, house is clean, and the new formula of detergent makes it twice as dense. The role of woman was also determined by multiple home economics textbooks and magazines, which on a par with advertising and filmmaking were shaping the image of an ideal woman who "every day is preparing for the arrival of her hus-
band from the service." In particular, prior her husband's arrival a woman was advised to prepare the children, "Wash them, and comb them, and dress them in clean, elegant clothes. They have to line up and greet his father when he enters the door. In this case you yourselves put on a clean apron and try to beautify yourselves - for example, fix the hair bow. Do not enter in conversation with your husband, remembering how much tired he got, and what he has to undertake every day at his work for your sake - feed him in silence, and only when he reads over his newspaper, you may try to talk to him" (Journal "Home economy" (USA), May 13, 1955). Such guidelines existed for the Soviet women, too [12].
That is, de jure after the Second World War, woman received equality, but de facto her scope was limited primarily to household, and woman herself was looked at if not as an addition, but more than likely as a helping hand for her husband. Certainly, shortly after the war when the issue of gender equality was brought into line with other key social issues, there was a certain damping of feminist movement strength, but the gain of patriarchal tendencies at that time caused a new wave of feminist activity. Thus, the work of S. de Beauvoir "The Second Sex" [6], published in 1949, in which the explorer was trying to understand the problem of women's existence in the modern world, became the thunder from the blue.
Unlike all previous feminist theories, S. de Beauvoir sees the reasons of women's position of servitude not so much in the biological differences between sexes, legal and socio-economic inequality, but in historical perceptions of the role of women in society. Exploring mythology, literature, different national traditions and values, system of education of girls, family models, she shows that the main obstacle to women's freedom, dominant in society, is the idea of women being as "secondary", while in the history and culture a man is conceived as the "primary" and head.
Along with others, the explorer focuses on the fact that women independently assume the roles of "the second sex", thus confirming psychological dependence. As a result of psychological transformations propagated by traditional standards of education, a woman loses the ability to take responsibility for her own life and qualify for the realization of personal abilities outside the family sphere. S. de Beauvoir deduced a formula that "no
one is born a woman: one should become a woman. Her formation in society as a human individual of female sex is defined neither by biological nor psychological, or economic factors in particular. Only a combination of all of them, so to say, signs of civilization creates ... a product ... called a woman "[6] not only opposed the historical myth of a "special human nature of women" [6], but also gave impetus to a new understanding of women's emancipation.
Note that her book numbering in a thousand pages was immediately sold by a huge edition in Europe and translated into 30 languages. This allowed many generations of women see their destiny and the world in a new light as a result S. de Beauvoir for decades was the idol of intellectual Europe. Her work became an idiosyncratic call to women to break free of patriarchal stereotypes and to embark on the way of self-realization, feeling not only a woman but personality as well.
Equally important for enhancing women's movement was the work of Betty Friedan "The Feminine Mystique" [24], first published in 1963. This work became both the American and worldwide bestseller, as it met fully matured social query. In particular, B. Friedan like no one before her showed not only "comfortable concentration camps" of American housewives, but also the means of designing those ideals that were produced by the society. In particular, the explorer focuses on the fact that more than fifteen years after the Second World War, all the media - women's magazines, books, advertising, etc., were developing the ideal of femininity, which was usually identified with the image of housewives. "Millions of Americans followed in their lives the image of a charming American wife kissing her husband goodbye in front of the window, seeing him off at work, driving children to school in a big car and manipulating with a smile a brand new electric vacuum cleaner on an impeccably clean kitchen floor. They baked bread by themselves, sewed by themselves for themselves and their children and did not turn off a washing machine or a dryer all day long... and fell sympathy for their poor mothers-losers who once were dreaming of a career. The only thing they dreamt of was becoming a perfect wife and mother" [24].
Despite the "perfect" life of a healthy and beautiful American wife released, due to scientific achievements and home appliances, from exhaust-
ing domestic work, the dangers of childbirth and diseases, her grandmother was suffering from, yet "a problem that had no name" was brewing in society, because despite all the benefits, women felt economically and psychologically dependent on men. Accordingly, the reverse side of the "safe life" coin was tranquilizers and sometimes suicides, which often women resorted to, feeling the limitations of their own lives. As a result, the work of B. Friedan became an important step to realizing an urgent social problem and the first step towards its solving.
One of the key moments in the development of a new wave of the feminist movement was the year 1968, went down in history not only because of the May student revolts, which, along with others posed the question of emancipation and women's education, but of the world-known case at the "Miss America" contest held in Atlantic City. Then contestants gathered their bras and belts for stockings which then (and not only then) symbolized femininity in a patriarchal sense - and ceremoniously burned them. The purpose of the action was to show that a woman's image was created artificially, and the beauty contests were spreading it [15, 23]. Despite the fact, that the campaign did not receive a full understanding, as it resulted in distortion of the feminists' aspirations, rather than in refuting the patriarchal values, it was an important step on the way to strengthening gender equality in America and Europe.
Within the same period feminism acquired a grounded theoretical basis, as a galaxy of thinkers who were studying the causes of gender inequality in the humanities appeared. In this context, it is worth, first of all, recalling the work of Shulamith Firestone "The dialectic of sex: the case for feminist revolution" (1970) [23], in which the explorer based on the philosophical legacy of K. Marx, F. Engels, S. Freud, S. de Beauvoir was trying not only to highlight the causes of gender inequality, but also show the factors that intensified feministic movement in the twentieth century. Equally important role in defining the causes of gender inequality was played by "Sexual Politics" (1970) [31, 32] by Kate Millett, "Sexual abuse of women workers" (1979) by Susan Brownmiller, [27] "Sexual harassment in relation to working women" by Catherine McKinnon (1979) [30] and others. In these and other works, major attention, on the one hand, was paid to socio-cultural and philosophical
sources of existing gender inequality, and on the other - to the problems faced by women who were maintaining their right to their own personal identity.
Activation of the feminist movement in America and Europe, which took place in the late 1960s - early 1970s of XX century, was of utmost importance for establishing a fundamentally new system of Western values, which were fully manifested in the 1980s. Since that time, feminism as a movement for upholding the equality between men and women has been an integral part of civil and social policy of most developed countries. Nevertheless, the issue of gender equality cannot be considered resolved, as the movement towards establishing the egalitarian values is accompanied by a number of problems, including the leading role played by conservation of gender stereotypes and overall social inequality. The most controversial in this context is the phenomenon of reproducing human beings, because despite all the remarks of the feminist theorists on social imposing a motherhood priority on women [23] and related gender stereotypes and roles, yet currently there are no reasoned social programs, which could propose addressing the problem of social fulfilment of women and the problems of reproduction of society.
Significant difficulties in addressing gender issues are caused by the fact that not many countries have been developing along the common ideological vector with European values, and therefore not only develop, but also cultivate the traditional gender stereotypes, considering them a basis for "normal" functioning of society. In consequence, the intellectual discourse, forced to constantly refer to studying those socio-cultural, philosophical and economic factors, which, on the one hand, have opened the opportunity for awareness of gender inequality, and, on the other - those basic structures that are invariably underlying human sociality. As a result of this, in the intellectual discourse the works which highlight specific features of gender relations in the ancient, pre-modern, modern and contemporary societies are constantly produced. In this context, first of all, it is worth mentioning Blundell S. [26] Danylova T. [28] Davidson J. [29] Storozhuk S. and Hoyan I. [33] and others.
Purpose
Forming the axiological system of Western society, with the intentions to establish gender equality as a guarantee of a just society being taken into account, on the one hand, and preserving the traditional gender stereotypes inherent to patriarchal gender roles in a considerable part of the world, on the other hand, is actualizing the study of the factors that have contributed to realizing the problem of gender inequality and discrimination. Therefore, the aim of our study is to highlight the factors that stipulated the awareness of gender equality in European social and cultural space, while leaving alive the traditional gender values in a number of other cultural environments.
Methodology
Methodology of the study is determined by interdisciplinary approach involving the use of general scientific methods such as analysis, synthesis, generalization, etc. The leading role belonged to the principle of the historical and logical unity. At the same time the study uses the basic principles of philosophical hermeneutics and the contextual analysis method.
Theoretical basis and results
Before we examine the factors that have led to the establishment of the intention to establish gender equality in the Western European cultural space, in our view, it is worth defining the concept of "gender inequality", which is often used to characterize the social order in which different social groups (in this case men and women) have persistent historical differences and define their social opportunities. Accordingly, the establishment of gender equality means the availability of tools that allow all social groups to fully realize their social potential. Meanwhile, as it has been already mentioned, gender inequality is a form of social inequality. Thus, awareness of gender inequality could not appear earlier than the awareness of social inequality. As an example, we can consider the originality of the ancient society, where, as G. Hegel remarked at his time, for the first time the realization of freedom of a certain group of people took place [9, p.18]. Said observation was of extreme importance for explaining the peculiarities of ideology and values of Greek society, since it is by
the sign of freedom, as F. Cassidy was remarking, Greeks were identifying the Ellen as a representative of a particular polis, distinguishing him from the barbarian, and the more a servant [14, p. 24]. Meanwhile, for the Greeks, the word "Ellen", "man" and "citizen" were substantially close, because each of them was standing in certain conformity to the concept of freedom. Accordingly, demos, and women who are known to have been completely deprived of political rights and thus freedom, were seen as some part of society whose interests should be taken into account only in view of the mass character and conspicuous importance in the reproduction of society [3] that, among other things, was described in detail by Aristotle in "Politics" [3]. It is significant that his own convictions as Aristotle's works attest to were built in the context of prevailing at that time picture of the world where mythological ideas about the activity of masculinity and female passivity were remaining alive. As a result of this, Aristotle argues that "femininity should be seen as a natural disadvantage" [2], as a woman is nothing but a "sterile male" [2], who without active masculinity is not even able to reproduce humans. As a result, woman does not have her own place and cannot have it in the world structure without acquiring a form, i.e. without conjunction with masculinity.
Of course, Aristotle's believes, as Plato's "The Republic" confirms [18], were not universal, however, they the most fully reflected the gender relations existing in that society. This, in its turn, has enabled many researchers to talk about the lack of gender equality in Greek society. However, in our view, these conclusions are not entirely legitimate, as in the Greek worldview, as J. Zizioulas rightly remarked, principle of unity of things (entities or objects) had been dominating. Existing multiplicity of real entities could not refute it, since those ones, according to the Greeks, were in communion with the mind (Logos) and existence. In fact, in the Greeks' imagination, the existence of a specific entity (including human beings), was reduced to some necessary connection and "affinity" with "common" existence, in its end each "difference" having been seen as a kind of intention to "non-existence", distortion or "falling away" from the existence [13, c. 28].
J. Zizioulas's remarks on originality of the Greek worldview serve as a strong argument for explaining the features of gender relations and
gender equality in ancient society. In particular, given the fact that in ancient society a woman is seen as "male sterile" (Aristotle), she appears a kind of being incomplete, false human, and therefore her existence borders on "non-being" without going into it completely. Accordingly, the feature indicated does not allow women the right for freedom (especially political), and, moreover, equality. The latter is a feature of those who have existence, those who ARE already there (i.e. possess that being) fully.
Thus, the leading role for establishing the idea of equality in ancient society was the principle of unity of entities with the mind (Logos) and existence. According to Greek ideas it was that principle that defined the place of every entity and creature in the world, and following it was the main precondition for preserving social harmony. So, given the peculiarity of the Greek worldview, we have every reason to state that the problem of gender or social equality did not stand before the Greeks. Polis citizens were equal and free. Moreover, they had equal opportunities to realize their own political goals. As for the women, their place was considered predetermined by their natural features [3], and as a result, they could not even think about gender equality. In fact, when it comes to ancient society, there is no reason to speak of gender inequality, as in this case, we begin to extrapolate current values in the ancient society, distorting its historical social standards.
A similar situation was in medieval society. It is well known that there a Christian worldview with the inherent notion of woman as the secondary being (including the "secondary sex" by S. de Beauvoir) was holding a complete dominion. This belief had been initiated by the Old Testament idea of creation, particularly by Adam's words, "This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh. She shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of man" (Genesis 2:23). In apostolic times, the idea of subordination of women to men developed most ardently by Apostle Paul ("But I want you to realize, - he said, - that the head of every man is Christ, and the head of the woman is man, and the head of Christ is God." (1 Corinthians 11: 3)), who believed that this kind of social order in the most appropriate way was corresponding the hierarchy established by God. It would seem that, the medieval outlook was further developing the antagonism of male and female principles traditional for myth-
ological thinking. Meanwhile, this is not entirely true, because, during this period a new attitude toward women was becoming firmly established. On the one hand, within the Christian worldview the idea that "all were servants of God" was developing and thereby all people, including women, were equal before God, and on the other - a distinctive cult of woman-mother was gaining shape, because it was she who brought God into the world. This feature, in our opinion, was very important, because in the mythological consciousness, motherhood had no status beneficial or God-given, on the contrary - it was seen as entirely natural function of woman, whose mission, the same as in the natural world, was to give birth to new generations.
Indeed, when we are coming up to the coverage of gender relations in medieval society from a historical viewpoint, we have every reason to believe that at that time there was a significant shift in recognizing the role of women in society. This role, on the one hand, was due to the influence of ideological and socio-cultural heritage of ancient society where a woman's role was limited to household. Certain changes of this aspect of gender relations surely took place in the Roman culture where a woman received a lot of freedom. Meanwhile the spread of Christianity with the inherent idea of sinfulness made the medieval society review those socio-cultural norms. The important role was played by hierarchism of medieval society highlighted by G. Hegel in "Philosophy of History" [9, p.380], which was fixed on the ideological level without the opportunity to doubt its feasibility. An important role for establishing the patriarchal gender stereotypes was played by the fact, that the outlook of the ancient and medieval societies was based on the belief, as rightly K. Jaspers noted, that appeared as "the truth, which I live in, and which exists only because I become identical with it; in its phenomenon it is historical, in its objective expression it has no universal significance but it is absolute "[25]. In fact, the religious dogma produced by the church, were the undisputed fact with which people were internally identifying themselves, and, consequently, in the medieval culture the issues of gender equality did not exist.
Some changes in that situation occurred only during the Renaissance, because at that time morale was not so strict, and in the end the women, particularly women-members of the privileged
classes or those from the wealthy families, had opened access both to theological, and secular literature, philosophy, and sometimes to political activity. Meanwhile, such freedom was not only extremely limited, but largely incomprehensible; a woman with that freedom acted as a kind of "Mr. Jourdain" by Jean Moliere, as she got freedom, without determining the vector of her development, and, consequently, courtesans became to play the important role in secular life [6]. In our view, it is their lives, on the one hand, which were an essential prerequisite for understanding the problems of women's existence in the society of that time, and on the other - their lives revealed the ideological prematurity of the problem of gender equality. After all, in the conditions of caste patriarchal society, the recognition of women's equality was necessarily preceded by the recognition of equality among people, with that idea being far from establishing itself quickly in social outlook.
Of course, we can say that the first attempt to study theoretical equality between men and women, were made long before that period; for the first time this idea is found in Plato's "The Republic". Meanwhile, in Plato's outlook, in our opinion, this idea was explicated as a result of awareness of existing social inequality or acute social need in establishing equality, since otherwise the level of accumulation of discontent would lead to revolutionary unrest [20], as a logical consequence of the ontology, proposed by the thinker. The same idea appears in Christian ontology - because, otherwise, it would be difficult to explain why it was woman who became a translator of God into the world. Meanwhile, it did not lay the foundation for establishing the social and cultural equality of men and women.
The epoch of Renaissance did not become free in regard to worldview either, since, according to P. Bicilli, their outlook was not independent, but was expressed in close unity with antiquity [5, p. 29]. Even humanists, the researcher is continuing his thought, were focusing primarily on "direct experience of unity of the Cosmos, unity of Macrocosm and Microcosm. Based on this spiritual experience, they [humanists - specif. is ours], raising the problem of human's becoming closer to God, their deification, interpret him in a mystical spirit, emphasize the importance of immediate feeling of his divinity inherent in human" [5, p.42]. In view of this, we can assume that the equality of
men and women grounded by T. Mohr in his "Utopia" (1516) was most probably a manifestation of ancient concepts and not a conscious fact. The teachings justifying the reasons of the inequality existing in society primarily serve in favour of our assumption. This inequality, according to the majority of the Renaissance representatives was emerging as the result of inherent natural abilities ("seeds"), presenting all forms of inequality as naturalistic basis [4, p.94].
As a result, the real position of women, even at that time, in most cases was not much better than in the middle Ages. In particular, as well as before she could be married off or cloistered in a monastery without her will. Where the girl remained alone, her fate was no better, as she remained in her family and had to obey the head of the family (father, brother or uncle) or seek entertainment or comfort among the same single women in a monastery. In addition, the general humanistic thrust of secular culture, with its inherent intention to exaltation of love and special treatment of women [6] bordered upon the constant attacks of the Catholic clergy, who repeatedly criticized sharply the image of woman as temptress that turns man into a slave. Meanwhile, the true calling of every Christian was nothing else but serving God. Accordingly, clergymen called for men to avoid all forms of female yoke, including marriage. Let us note that the antagonism that arose as a result of observing celibate with Catholic priests and temptations provoked by women was softened due to the Reformation.
Despite a number of changes that occurred in the Renaissance worldview, today there is no reason to talk about a certain level of awareness of gender equality at that time. In our opinion, this is stipulated, firstly, by maintaining the idea of natural inequality among people and limited intentions aimed at ensuring gender equality. In particular, unlike rich women, who in some cases may seem quite emancipated, which was perfectly demonstrated by S. de Beauvoir, the problem of gender equality among working population was not viewed at all, because that class of people remained socially and economically oppressed. Accordingly, being preoccupied with the problem of survival, working people had no opportunity to pose questions of personal realization, which is the main prerequisite for establishing the political and gender equality.
It is significant that, as S. de Beauvoir rightly observes, the gender stereotypes formed in the late middle Ages, despite some positive developments, remained unchanged until the early XIX century. Of course, in this context the right to education can be considered a quite positive development. Meanwhile, the implementation of this feature was often accompanied by significant gender bias, since the major attention was further drawn to the education of men. That resulted in the fact that the formal recognition of woman's right to self-realization in the cultural sphere was accompanied by significant social prejudices, and even extraordinary female talent needed male support. This feature was the most vividly expressed in the novel by G. de Maupassant "Dear Friend", which among other things the attention was focused on the fact that the full realization of journalistic talent of woman (character of Madeleine) could take place only through (or thanks to) her husband. Let us note that in this context we are talking about the end of the XIX century.
One of the few manifestations of female freedom, and if to be more precise, rebellion against patriarchal customs, which manifested itself among the privileged and educated social groups, was a certain female promiscuity, which, as S. de Beauvoir rightly observes, appeared along with the demoralization of nobility in general. In particular, like men, women were starting to violate increasingly the morality of that time, and consequently take quite weighty significance in political and cultural life of Europe of that time. As an example, the researcher recalls the kings' favorites, as quite often they significantly influenced the political life. Meanwhile, the mentioned women's frivolities were usually hidden, because the moral norms and patriarchal values remained dominant. For most of them, freedom remained negative and abstract, and therefore they were limited to seeking pleasure. In our view, the secret violation of patriarchal morality by women could be seen as both a manifestation of rebellion against patriarchal customs, and self-will, directed against church rules, and as a result of manipulation by the influential men (e.g., let us remember Cardinal Richelieu). Whatever it was, but at that time woman was still in the process of self-determination through "femininity" in all its possible manifestations and did not even foresee any possibility for personal realization as an individual (excluding queens).
Despite conservation, and in some cases even strengthening the patriarchal norms, it was the period of XVII- XIX c.c., which was forming the preconditions of reviewing the gender relations in European society. The leading role in this context was certainly played by the theories of social contract by T. Hobbes [10], J. Locke [16], Ch. Montesquieu [17] and especially J.J .Rousseau [19], who justified natural equality of all people (including women) due to this theory. Of course, according to these thinkers, the very idea of natural equality of people did not involve yet its establishment at a socio-cultural level, which does not diminish the importance of these researchers. After all, it is their works that were of prime importance in realization of the fact that the patriarchal stereotypes were a means of discrimination based on sex. This intention is most clearly manifested in the "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen" [11], published in 1791, that is - in two years after the publication of the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen" and became a kind of replica of the latter. After all, the author of the "The Declaration of the Rights of Woman" Olympe de Gouges in this work sometimes using irony, was trying to awaken women's consciousness, "Woman, wake up! - She writes - Alarm of Reason is spreading throughout the universe; present your rights. Mighty kingdom of nature is not limited any more to prejudices, fanaticism, superstition and lies. Flame of Truth has dispelled the darkness of madness and usurpation" [11].
Calls of O. de Gouges for us is significant evidence that in some social circles in the minds of women, there was awareness of their humiliating position. Meanwhile, as the writer's appeals show, most women considered their position quite natural, and therefore did not raise the question of its change. Both S. de Beauvoir evidence [6], and, as A. Toffler remarked [22], industrialization speak in support of our observations. Its progress, as the thinker observed, revealed itself not only in a smoking pipes, but uppermost in the breakdown of the entire social system of traditional society. The patriarchal stereotypes with their inherent intention to limit the scope and the rights of women were not an exception. On the one hand, the destruction of a large family, which took place during the transition from agricultural activities inherent in the traditional society to industrial production, simultaneously was changing the role of woman, who as a
result of specialization inherent in industrial society in specific instances was exempted from the care of aged relatives and children, because specialized institutions were assuming this function. This, in turn, was opening more opportunities for her professional self-realization together with her husband. Meanwhile, it usually concerned the working class representatives, as representatives of the bourgeoisie, inheriting the privileged positions, continued to develop the patriarchal values restricting woman only to the area of the house that was perfectly demonstrated by G. de Maupassant in his already mentioned novel "Dear Friend." E. Zola described a similar situation in his novel "Au Bonheur Des Dames".
As a result of these changes and the overall intention of modern discourse on the search of key factors of enslaving a human being - religion, class antagonism, etc., woman begins to realize her humiliation and fight for changes in social standards.
Originality
The paper is putting forward and substantiating its position regarding modern nature of gender problem. In particular, it is shown that before the era of "modern", gender relations were seen as a logical manifestation of social overview of the features of the universe. It is shown that awareness of gender inequality was occurring in parallel with the realization of a certain form of social inequality and general democratization of social relations. Given the fact that gender relations until the early modern era, had been considered either as a result of biological characteristics of a human body, or determined by the ideas, prevailing in a concrete historical dimension, about the origin and structural features of the world, we have every reason to affirm that in the ancient and pre-modern society, gender inequality or discrimination did not exist, because it had not been realized.
Conclusions
Disclosure of identity of gender relations in different stages of socio-cultural development gives reason to maintain that the originality of interpretation of gender relations depends on the interpretation of identity and role of human's place in the world, and therefore the idea of gender equality, which was a logical consequence of the realization of gender discrimination could not appear earlier than the idea of autonomy and free will of a human being. Therefore, we have every reason to affirm that a key factor towards the realization of gender equality was the formation of an autonomous entity, with his concept being originated in the Renaissance.
Equally important for the awareness of equality between men and women were the dominant in different historical and socio-cultural periods the anthropological and social theories, because they produced originality of addressing the problem of a human and society, thereby determining the legal status of women.
Despite all the ideological shifts that took place in the social outlook of the pre-modern era, however, as history has shown, they failed to generate sufficient philosophical foundations either for recognizing the equality of women, or changing their social, legal and political status, which was leading to the accumulation of unconscious internal opposition to prevailing social standards, which was expressed in a kind of arbitrary behaviour, its originality, however, having failed to acquire any openness by the beginning of industrialization, which destroyed rural communities with their inherent division of labour, mode of life, and eventually significantly weakened the influence of mythological social structures, and laid the preconditions for awareness of gender inequality and start fighting against it.
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С. В. СТОРОЖУК1*, I. М. ГОЯН2
'"Нащональний ушверситет бюресурав i природокористування Украши (Кшв), ел. пошта [email protected], ORCID 0000-0002-7947-6268
2Прикарпатський нацiональний уншерситет iменi Василя Стефаника (1вано-Франк1вськ), эл. пошта [email protected], ORCID 0000-0003-2548-0488
ГЕНДЕРНА РШШСТЬ ЯК МОДЕРНИЙ ФЕНОМЕН
Мета роботи. Формування аксюлопчно! системи захвдноевропейського суспiльства з урахуванням iнтенцii на встановлення гендерноi ршносл, як запоруки розвитку справедливого суспшьства, з одного боку, та збере-ження у значнiй частинi свггу традицiйних гендерних стереотипiв з притаманними !м патрiархальними гендер-ними ролями, з шшого боку, актуалiзуe вивчення тих чиннишв, якi сприяли усввдомленню проблеми гендерноi нерiвностi та дискримшацп за статевою ознакою. Зважаючи на це, мета нашого дослiдження полягае у висвгт-леннi чинникiв, яш зумовили усвiдомлення проблеми гендерноi' ршносл у европейському соцiокультурному просторi, залишивши водночас живими традицiйнi гендернi цшносп у рядi iнших культурних середовищ. Методологiя дослiдження обумовлена мiждисциплiнарним пщходом, який передбачае використання таких загальнонаукових методiв як аналiз, синтез та узагальнення тощо. Провiдне значения вщирав принцип едностi iсторичного й лопчного. Поряд з цим у робот використанi засадничi принципи фiлософськоi' герменевтики та метод контекстуального аналзу. Наукова новизна полягае у висуненнi нових теоретичних положень спрямо-ваних показати, що у античному та премодерному суспiльствi гендерноi нерiвностi та дискримшацп не юнува-ло, позаяк в цей час гендерш вiдносини розглядалися або ж як результат бюлопчних особливостей людського органiзму, або ж пояснювалися пануючими в конкретно-кторичному вимiрi свiтоглядними уявленнями про походження та особливостi будови свiту. Внаслвдок цього гендернi ролi поставали датстю, яка не пiдлягала нiякому сумншу. Висновки. Незважаючи на усi свггоглядш зрушення, якi вiдбувалися у суспшьному свiтоглядi домодерноi доби, все ж, як показала iсторiя, вони не змогли сформувати достатнiх свiтоглядних пщвалин нi для визнання рiвноправностi жшки, нi для змiни ii суспшьного, юридичного та полiтичного статусу. Це призводило до накопичення несвiдомого внутршнього спротиву пануючим суспiльним стандартам, який виражався пере-дусiм у поведшковому свавiллi, яке однак не набувало вiдкритостi до початку iндустрiалiзацii. Остання, зруй-нувавши сiльську общину з притаманним in подiлом працi укладу життя, у пiдсумку чого суттево послабила мiфологiчнi соцiальнi структури, вщкрила можливiсть не тiльки усвiдомити, а й розпочати боротьбу за визнання гендерно! рiвностi.
Ключовi слова: гендер; гендерна рiвнiсть; гендерна дискримша^; iндустрiалiзацiя; суспiльний договiр С. В. Сторожук1*, И. Н. Гоян2
'"Национальный уииверситет биоресурсов и природопользования Украины (Киев), эл. почта sveta0101 @ukr.net, ORCID 0000-0002-7947-6268
2Прикарпатский иациоиальи^IЙ университет имени Василия Стефаника (Ивано-Франковск), эл. почта [email protected], ORCID 0000-0003-2548-0488
ГЕНДЕРНОЕ РАВЕНСТВО КАК МОДЕРНЫЙ ФЕНОМЕН
Цель работы. Формирования аксиологической системы западноевропейского общества с учетом интенции на установление гендерного равенства, как залога развития справедливого общества, с одной стороны, и сохранение в значительной части мира традиционных гендерных стереотипов с присущими им патриархальными гендерными ролями, с другой стороны, актуализирует изучение тех факторов, которые способствовали осознанию проблемы гендерного неравенства и дискриминации по половому признаку. Несмотря на это, цель нашего doi 10.15802/ampr.v0i11.105481 © S. V. Storozhuk, I. M. Hoyan, 2017
ISSN 2227-7242 (Print), ISSN 2304-9685 (Online) Антрополопчш вим!ри фшософських досл1джень, 2017, Вип. 11.
СОЦ1АЛЬНА Ф1ЛОСОФ1Я ТА Ф1ЛОСОФ1Я 1СТОР11
исследования заключается в освещении факторов, которые обусловили осознания проблемы тендерного равенства в европейском социокультурном пространстве, оставив одновременно живыми традиционные гендерные ценности в ряде других культурных сред. Методология исследования обусловлена междисциплинарным подходом, который предусматривает использование таких общенаучных методов как анализ, синтез и обобщение и др. Ведущее значение сыграл принцип единства исторического и логического. Наряду с этим в работе использованы основные принципы философской герменевтики и метод контекстуально анализа. Научная новизна заключается в выдвижении новых теоретических положений направленных показать, что в античном и предмо-дерном обществе гендерного неравенства и дискриминации не было, поскольку в это время гендерные отношения рассматривались или как результат биологических особенностей человеческого организма, или же определялись господствующими в конкретно-историческом измерении мировоззренческими представлениями о происхождении и особенности строения мира. В результате гендерные роли являлись данностью, которая не подлежала никакому сомнению. Выводы. Несмотря на все мировоззренческие сдвиги, которые происходили в общественном мировоззрении домодерной эпохи, все же, как показала история, они не смогли сформировать достаточных мировоззренческих установок ни для признания равноправия мужчины и женщины, ни для изменения общественного, юридического и политического статуса женщины. Это приводило к накоплению бессознательного внутреннего сопротивления господствующим общественным стандартам, который выражался прежде всего в поведенческом беспределе, который однако не получил открытости к началу индустриализации. Последняя, разрушила сельскую общину с присущим ей разделением труда и укладом жизни, в следствии чего существенно ослабила мифологические социальные структуры, открыла возможность не только осознать, но и начать борьбу за признание гендерного равенства.
Ключевые слова: гендер; гендерное равенство; гендерная дискриминация; индустриализация; общественный договор
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Ph.D. L. A. Kats (Israel) recommended this article to be published
Received: Feb. 19, 2017 Accepted: May 18, 2017
