CC BY
10
UDC 82-131 Yuri Kleiner
St. Petersburg State University Dmitry Piotrovsky
Pavlov First St. Petersburg State Medical University
FROM EPIC TO BALLAD: THE FAROESE 'SJÜRDUR CYCLE'
For citation: Kleiner Yu., Piotrovsky D. From Epic to Ballad: the Faroese 'Sjuröur Cycle'. Scandinavian Philology, 2019, vol. 17, issue 1, pp. 134-145. https://doi.org/10.21638/11701/spbu21.2019.108
The story of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer exists in the major Germanic traditions (except Old English), represented by texts recorded between the second half of the 13th and the mid-19th centuries, viz. the Old Icelandic Eddas and the Vglsungasaga, the German Nibelungenlied and the three Faroese ballads recorded by V. U. Hammershaimb. One part of the Faroese cycle (up to the assassination of Sjuröur) is similar to the Icelandic version of the story, the rest being reminiscent of the German tradition. (The boundary lies within the second ballad.) In the Icelandic tradition, plots either make up a succession implying continuation and pre-history (heroic epic) or they may be confined within the boundaries of one poem (mythological epic). The Faroese Sjuröur ballads, although heroic, are closer to the latter type (the limits of the poem and the plot coincide). Both the ballads and the epic show traits of orality (formulaic style, repetitions, etc.), suggesting variability and, hence, lack of fixity typical of literary tradition. Normally, orality is put an end to as a result of recording. In the ballad tradition, the process is characterized by a specificity connected with the circumstances of performance (dance combined with singing), and the active role of the audience, who were active participants, which implied some knowledge of the texts sung. In this way, the ballads acquired stability to become, later on, fixed texts and a special genre within literary tradition.
Keywords: Sigurör poems, Nibelungenlied, Old Icelandic epic, Faroese ballads, orality, recording, fixed texts.
The story of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer exists in the major Germanic traditions (except Old English), represented by texts recorded between the second half of the thirteenth and the mid-nineteenth centuries, the
Eddas and the Vglsungasaga, and the ballads, respectively. Three of the Faroese ballads recorded by V. U. Hammershaimb [Hammershaimb, 1851] make up the so-called Faroese 'Nibelungen cycle' consisting of Regin the Smith (131 stanzas; the birth and early years of SjurQur (OI SigurQr), his revenge for his father and his encounter with the dragon Franur (OI Fafnir); Brinhild (238 stanzas; the meeting of SjurQur and Brinhild, SjurQur marrying GuQrun, the assassination of SjurQur by his sworn-brothers, Gunnar and Hogni); and Hogni (239 stanzas; the visit of Gunnar and Hogni to the Huns and GuQrun's revenge).
Problems discussed in connection with the ballad tradition focus on its origin and its ties both in and outside Scandinavia. As M. I. Ste-blin-Kamenskij [Steblin-Kamenskij, 2003, p. 408] remarks in this connection, "the Scandinavian ballad as a verse form is considered to be of a foreign origin, most probably French. [...] But the fact itself that the ballad verse came from France does not imply that the ballad, as a genre, also came from France." Although paradoxical enough, this remark is not self-contradictory. Indeed, the organizing principle of the poetic form of the ballad, i.e. end-rhyme in place of the alliteration of both eddic and scaldic verse, is definitely not a local innovation. On the other hand, the plots of Scandinavian ballads are exclusively Germanic. In the Faroese SjurQur (SigurQr) ballads, two parts are clearly discernible, devoted to the events before and after SjurQur's death. The part concerned with SjurQur's exploits is similar to the Icelandic tradition, while the story of the revenge is closer to that of the Nibelungenlied. The boundary between the two parts lies within the second ballad of the cycle (Brinhild):
Ta var romur i budlungs holl, sveinar rida ut,
Brinhild sat eftir igiltum stoli, hon fellir tar a duk
'There was noise in the hall of the BuQlungs;
the heroes go for the journey;
Brinhild sat on her golden seat,
she is shedding tears onto her shawl' (B. CCI).
According to Helmut de Boor [De Boor, 1918, S. 71], this and some previous stanzas reveal motifs of two traditions, viz. Old Norse (Brin-hild's tears in spite of her being the instigatrix of the assassination) and German (the assassination that took place in a forest), cf.
CXCI.
nù skulu teir Jùkungar burt a skogin rida. CCVIII.
Riôa teir a skogin burt, Sjurôur i teirri ferô, hann vitsti ei af svikunum teir hövdu i raôagerô. CCXVIII.
Sjurôur legôist at drekka, sum vatn stoô firi i veit, Gunnar atti mœkan tann a Sjurôar halsi beit. CCXIX.
Högni stakk og Gunnar hjo viô hvössum sliôraknivi, teir gjördu so mikiô niôingsverk, teir toku hann Sjurô af livi.
CXCI.
now, Gjukungs, you must go from here,
and to the forest
CCVIII.
They ride in the forest, and SjurQur with them, He didn't know about the deceit they had in mind CCXVIII.
SjurQur lay down to drink where water ran into a stream Gunnar had the sword which stroke SjurQur on the neck CCXIX.
Hogni stang and Gunnar hewed with a sharp sheath knife, they did so a great evil deed, they deprived SjurQur of life.
De Boor [De Boor, 1918, S. 62] remarks that, from CXCI the ballad acquires features similar to those of the Nibelungen tradition, e.g. the hunting episode absent in the Edda (for discussion, see [Piotrovskii, 2000, p. 14-16]). In the Scandinavian tradition, it was not unknown that the 'forest motif' had come from Germany, cf.
pydverskir menn segja sva, atpeir drxpi hann uti i skogi
'German men say that they killed him out of doors in the forest' (Br. Prose: Fra dauda SigurSar).
One cannot exclude, however, that it circulated, in some form, beside other versions, cf.
Her er sagt i pessi kviSu fra dauda SigurSar ok vikr her sva til, sem peir drxpi hann uti, en sumir segja sva, at peir drxpi hann inni i rekkju sinni sofanda. ...ok sva segir i Gudrunarkvidu hinni fornu, at SigurSr ok Gjukasynir hefSi til pings riSit, pa er hann var drepinn, en pat segja allir einnig, at peir sviku hann i tryggd ok vagu at hanum liggjanda ok obunum
'Here it is told in this poem about the death of Sigurd, and the story goes here that they slew him out of doors, but some say that they slew him in the house, on his bed while he was sleeping. .and so it is told in the old Guthrun lay, that Sigurd and Gjuki's sons had ridden to the council-place, and that he was slain there' (ibid.).
The same applies to other motifs that, at some stage, could become a part of ballad plots, cf.
FM (prose) RS (CXIX — CXX)
Sigurdr tok Fafnis Sigurd took Faf- CXIX CXIX
hjarta ok steikdi a nir's heart and Sjurdur stakk til Sjur9ur rushed for
teini. cooked it on a hjartad, the heart,
spit. ta vegurin var the path was steep,
trangur, he cooked it on a
steikti hann tad a spit,
teini, which was three
id triati alin var ells long.
langur.
CXX CXX
Er hann hugdi, at When he thought Sjur9ur gjordist a Sjur9ur hurt his
fullsteikt vxri ok that it was fully hendi heitur, hand,
freyddi sveitinn cooked, and the hann bra sar i put it into his
or hjartanu, pa blood foamed out munn, mouth,
tok hann a fingri of the heart, then fuglar og so al- of birds and dif-
sinum ok skynjadi, he tried it with skins djor ferent animals he
hvart fullsteikt his finger to see voru honum a began to under-
vxri. Hann brann whether it was mali kunn. stand the speech.
ok bra fingrinum fully cooked. He
i munn ser. En er burned his finger,
hjartablod Faf- and put it in his
nis kom a tungu mouth. But when
hanum, ok skildi Fafnir's heart-
hann fugls rodd. blood came on his
tongue, he under-
stood the speech
of birds.
Here, the two poetic stanzas of the ballad correspond to a part of the prose passage, so the similarity is not that of form.
Likewise, the killing of Regin, in prose in the Edda, corresponds to two ballad stanzas:
FM (prose) RS (CXXII — CXXIII)
SigurSr hjo ho- Sigurd hew off CXXII CXXII
fuS af Regin, ok Regin's head. Then SjurSur steikti SjurQur cooked
\>i at han Fafnis he ate Fafnir's he- hjartaS the heart
hjarta ok drakk art and drank the og taS af teini dro, and took it from
bloS ^eira beggja, blood of both Re- Regin legSist at the spit,
Regins ok Fafnis. gin and Fafnir. drekka Regin lay to drink
Fa heyrSi SigurSr, ormsins eiturbloS. venomous dragon
hvar igSur mœltu: blood.
CXXIII CXXIII
Regin legSist at Regin lay to drink
drekka venomous dragon
ormsins eiturbloS, blood.
SjurSur gav ho- SjurQur stroke
num banasar him a murderous
i spori sum hann strike at the spot
stoS. he stood.
In the Edda, it is but one episode in a succession of events, but in the ballad, the assassination of the dragon, combined with SjurQur's departure with the treasure, is both the culmination of the story and its denouement. It requires no continuation, hence, the ending:
Nu skal latta ljoQi af,
eg kv0Qi ei longur a sinni,
so skal taka upp annar tatt,
og viSari leggja i minni
'Now the song must finish,
this time I do not speak any more,
a new song must begin,
and take more place in mind' (RS CXXXI).
A reference to a 'kong' in the previous stanza,
So treQur hann Grani grot ratt sum voll, tilikur kemur eingin aftur a rika kongins holl
'So Grani treads
on wet stones and grass,
finally he comes back
to the rich king's hall' (RS CXXX);
does not imply that the king is the father of Brinhild, who is the heroine of another ballad, not necessarily connected with the present one, cf.
Eg havi eina rimu hoyrt,
gjord er i gr0nari li9,
ta9 var first i firndini,
tad brast i Budlans tid.
'I have heard a story,
indited on a green hillside,
it appeared a long time ago
and narrates about Bu9li's time' (B. I).
Each of the ballads is a poem in its own right, as a ballad should be. Here lies the difference between the Faroese SjurQur ballads and the SigurQr story of the eddic tradition. The latter poems belong to the cyclic type based on "a genealogical ordering towards ancestors and descendants" [Yarkho, 1934, p. 48]. This means that each particular poem not only admits, but requires a continuation or some sort of prehistory (expanding of SigurQr's genealogy), both falling within one and the same plot, from a murder (e.g. of Fafnir by SigurQr), via a chain of deaths/ revenges (SigurQr — Gunnar/Hggni — Atli), to the last victims of the feud (HamQir and Sgrli). It is for this reason, no doubt, that many of the heroic poems have linking endings or beginnings in prose (by a redactor?), such as Sigurdr reid eptir sloQ Fafnis 'after the killing of Fafnir, Sigurd went...' (Fm end) or Sigurdr reid upp a Hindarfiall 'Sigurd went up to the top of Hindarfell...' (Sd beginning). This differs from the mythological portion of the Edda where the boundaries of the plot (e.g. from the first creation to Ragnargk, a segment of creation, recovery of Thor's hammer, etc.) and the poem (Vpluspa, Vafpudnismal, Pymskvida) coincide. Among other things, this manifests itself, in the endings, such as nu mun hon s0kkvaz 'now must she sink' (Vsp 66, 8), pu ert & visastr vera 'you are the wisest' (Vm 55, 9), Sva kom Odins sonr endr at hamri 'And so his hammer got Othin's son' (Prk, prose after 32) (see [Kleiner, 2004]).
In this respect, the Faroese (heroic) SjurQur ballads are closer to the mythological poems of the Poetic Edda. In combination with the (imported) verse-form (end-rhymes, etc.), they may be one of the sources of a pattern to accommodate all the details of story and a story generally. Some of the ballad elements are purely local, e.g. in B., secondary characters' names (Grimur, XLIV, Viggrim Gunnarsson, LV) and place-names (Hildarfjalli, VI). Only the Faroese ballad has two dwarves decorating Brinhild's seat with runes (B. XXIX-XXX), and SjurQur's dream (XLVII-L). Also Faroese are the scenes of the meeting of SjurQur with BuQli (CXI — CXXIV) and with Brinhild after his marriage to GuQrun (CXCVI-CC), etc.
Some details can be come across in other Germanic texts, e.g. a blue attire, probably a death omen, cf.
Hann [Hrafnkell] riSr i blam klxdum. 0xi hafSi hann ihendi, en ekki fleira vap-num. [...]En viSpann atrunaS at ekki verSi atpeim mgnnum er heitstrengingar fella a sik,pa hljop hann af baki til hans [Einarr] ok hjg hann [Einarr] banahggg 'He rides in blue raiment; he had an axe in his hand, but no other weapons. [.] But by reason of the belief that those who fulfill their vows never come to grief, he leaped off his horse, sprang upon Einarr, and dealt him his deathblow' (HS 6).
But in the ballad the attire is worn by GuQrun, rather than a (prospective) murderer. Similarly, SjurQur acquires the ability to understand birds' speech by tasting the blood of the dragon's heart, as the SigurQr of the Poetic Edda (see above). But the same ability of his manifests itself in B. as well, where, strictly speaking, it remains unexplained, cf.
LII.
Tad sogdu honum igurnar*,
uppi sitja i lund
vxn er Brinhild BuSla dottir,
hon stundar a tin fund.
LIII.
TaS sogdu honum villini fuglar, uppi sotu i eik; vxn er Brinhild BuSla dottir, hon vxntar a tin leik. * Hapax legomenon.
LII.
The feathered ones said to him, [those who] sit up in a grove: beautiful is Brinhild BuQli's daughter, she is waiting for a meeting with you. LIII.
Birds said to him, [those who] sat up in an oak: beautiful is Brinhild BuQli's daughter, she is waiting for your play.
The use of the motif reflects a difference between the patterns typical of the two traditions (epic and ballad) and, in particular, their thematic arrangement. A. B. Lord defines the theme as "groups of ideas regularly used in telling a tale in the formulaic style of traditional song" [Lord, 2000, p. 68] and as "a structural unit that has a semantic essence but can never be divorced from its form, even if its form be constantly variable and multiform" [Lord, 2000, p. 198]. Central to both definitions is variability, which manifests itself, first and foremost, in the use of formulas by a poet. Formulas tend to be regarded, erroneously, as fixed expressions (clichés). Indeed, in traditional poetry some phrases may be repeated verbatim. But as Steblin-Kamenskij has explained, "Similarity of poetic lines in two ballads is not necessarily identity. It can be limited to syntactic structure, while syntactic similarity may or may not be accompanied by the similarity of meaning. Besides, syntactic similarity may be accompanied by coincidence of expression, which, in turn, can be limited to just one word in a line or stanza or, vice versa, all the words of a line or stanza, except one (a proper name, for instance), can coincide. An exact match of lines or stanzas of different ballads is but a particular case of repetition" [Steblin-Kamenskij, 2003, p. 408-409].
Stanzas LXXXVII-LXXXIX of B. demonstrate both types of coincidence, with a complete match of ll. 1 and 3 in LXXXIX and LXXXVIII, a partial coincidence of ll. 2 and 4 in LXXXIX and LXXXVII, cf.
LXXXVII. LXXXVIII. LXXXIX.
Hoyr taS SjurSur Sigmun-darson hvor visti tar leid gjognum royk og vaSaluga, at tu higar reid? 'Hear this SjurQur Sig-mundarson, who showed you the way through smoke and fire, so that you come here?' Ta sogdu Mar fuglar TVEIR gjognum grona lund: vmN er Brinhild Bubladottir, hon stundar a tin fund. 'Two birds told me so in the green forest: beautiful is Brinhild BuQladot-tir, she wants to meet you'. TaB sogdu Mar fuglar TVEIR ar a minari leid: vmN er Brinhild Bubladottir, ti eg higar reid. 'Two birds told me so before I start on my way: beautiful is Brin-hild BuQladottir, so that I come here'.
A partial coincidence, particularly in the case of name substitution, 'X, the son of X', is a classical example of the traditional formula (see
[Kleiner, 2010]); it is defined as "a group of words regularly employed under the same metrical conditions to express a given essential idea" [Lord, 2000, p. 30]. Another example of formulaic variation in Faroese ballads is Tad er enn sum ofta firr 'That is as often [happened] before' (B. LXXI.) and Tad var ta sum oftun enn 'That was as [will happen] later' (RS XXIV). The fact that the two sentences belong to different poems indicates that the variation is not only formulaic but also traditional, i.e. characterizing the tradition generally1. Questions may arise concerning the nature and boundaries of the tradition in which the formulas were used: 'ballad and/or epic', 'Faroese and/or Scandinavian/Germanic', etc. Indeed, Tad er enn sum ofta firr is similar in meaning to Icelandic ar ('early')- formulas, e.g. Ar vas alda 'of old was the age' (Vsp 3,1). The similarity is purely superficial, however, for the 'essential idea' of the ballad formula is based on the 'past : future' opposition, while in Icelandic, the reference is invariably to the past. This suggests that the formulas belong to different thematic patterns and to different poetic traditions.
The above variation ('formulaic style') is concordant with the basic principle of oral composition, which is 'composition in performance', i.e. composing a song each time it is sung. Steblin-Kamenskij's description of the implementation of this principle in the ballad tradition is as follows: "[F]or singers, the ballad was not a fixed text, but only a scheme that required verbal expression. But if the ballad was not a fixed text for the singers, it is obvious that each of the performances was, in fact, the creation of a new work, although the singers (or recorders) were not aware of it. Of course, since the singer did not regard himself an author, he did not strive for originality, therefore the difference between the ballad he sang and the 'same ballad' by other singers could be minimal or even reduced to zero. Nevertheless, due to the non-fixed nature of the text, i.e. the inseparability of performance from composition, any performance was a creative work, regardless of how much the result of this work differed from the results of other singers" [Steblin-Kamenskij, 2003, p. 405-406].
It is only natural, in this context, to conclude that the end of orality results from the fixation of texts hitherto performed orally: "[A]s a result of every recording, the ballad became a fixed text, i.e. something directly
1 Cf. A. B. Lord's earlier definition of the theme as "subject unit. regularly employed by a singer, not merely in any given poem, but in the poetry as a whole" [Lord, 1938, p. 440].
opposite to what it was in the oral tradition ... With the spread of writing, the oral ballad tradition died everywhere. Ballads could be read and learnt by heart. Creativity typical of improvisation gave way to mechanical reproduction of the text" [Steblin-Kamenskij, 2003, p. 406, 418].
This is true of any oral tradition, but in the case of ballads the process is characterized by a specificity connected with the circumstances of ballad performance: "No doubt, the ballad existed only as a song and it was usually a dance song. There is evidence that the custom of ballad dancing spread throughout Scandinavia. The dance consisted in the fact that dancers, men and women, formed a circle or a chain, making first two steps to the left, then a step to the right, etc. The poet sang ballad stanzas, all the others singing the refrain. It was the poet, therefore, who was the performer of a ballad" [Steblin-Kamenskij, 2003, p. 407]. In this situation, the role of the skipari, ballad performer was that of a 'moderator'; his audience, unlike the audience of an epic poet, were not passive listeners, but active participants of singing and dancing. It is only natural that they would know the texts they sung, even though their own part was limited to singing a refrain.
In this way, the ballads acquired stability to become, later on, fixed texts and a special genre within literary tradition.
ABBREVIATIONS
B. (= Brinhild) — Hammershaimb 1851: 16-36. Br. (= Brot) — Neckel 1914: 193-196. Fm (= Fafnismal) — Neckel 1914: 176-184. HS (= Hrafnkels saga Freysgo9a) — Baetke 1952. RS (= Regin Smidur) — Hammershaimb 1851: 3-15. Sd (= Sigrdrtfomäl) — Neckel 1914: 185-192. Vm (= Vafpüdnismäl) — Neckel 1914: 44-53. Vsp (= Vpluspä) — Neckel 1914: 1-15. Prk (= Prymskvida) — Neckel 1914: 107-111.
REFERENCES
Baethke W. (ed.). Hrafnkels saga Freysgoda. Mit Einletung, Anmerkungen und Glossar herausgegeben von Walter Baethke. Halle (Saale): Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1952.
De Boor H. Die faröischen Leiden des Nibelungenzyclus / Germanische Bibliothek. Hrsg. von Wilhelm Streitbgerg. Zwölfter Band. Heidelberg: Carl Winters Universitätsverlagbuchchandlung, 1918. 214 S.
Hammershaimb, V. U. Sjüröar kvfödi. Samlede og besörgede ved V. U. Hammers-
haimb. K0benhavn: Brödrene Berlings bogtr, 1851. Kleiner Yu. A. Syuzhet — pesn' — traditsiya [Plot — song — tradition]. Slovo v perspektive literaturnoj evoljutsii. Dedicated to 100 years of M. I. Steblin-Ka-menskij. Moscow: Yazyki slavyanskoy kul'tury, 2004, p. 161-172. (In Russian) Kleiner Yu. A. Yazyk epicheskoy traditsii v sinkhronii i diakhronii [The language of epci tradition in synchrony and diachrony]. Poetica traditsii. St. Petersburg, 2010, pp. 18-44. (In Russian) Lord A. B. Homer and Huso II: Narrative Inconsistencies in Homer and Oral Poetry. Transactions of the American Philological Association 69. 1938, p. 439-445. Lord, A. B. The Singer of Tales. Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2000. 307 p. Neckel G. (ed.). Edda. Die Lieder des Codex Regius nebst verwandten Denkmälern. Hrsg. von Gustav Neckel. I. Heidelberg: Carl Winters Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1914.
Piotrovskii D. D. Farerskie Ballady. Literaturnyi eksperiment ili traditsia? [Faroese Ballads. A Literary experiment or Tradition?]. Atlantika. Zapiskipo istoriches-koy poetike. Issue XV. Moscow, 2018, p. 144-150. (In Russian) Steblin-Kamenskij M. I. Drevneskandinavskaja literatura. Ballady [Old Scandina-vic Literature, Ballads]. Trudy po filologii [Works on Philology]. St. Petersburg: Filologicheskij fakul'tet Sankt-Peterburgskogo universiteta, 2003, p. 404-418. (In Russian)
Yarkho B. I. Saga o Volsugakh [Völsungasaga]. Moscow; Leningrad: Academia, 1934. 288 s. (In Russian)
Юрий Александрович Клейнер
Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет
Дмитрий Дмитриевич Пиотровский
Первый Санкт-Петербургский государственный медицинский университет им. акад. И. П. Павлова
ОТ ЭПОСА К БАЛЛАДЕ: ФАРЕРСКИЙ «СИГУРДОВСКИЙ ЦИКЛ»
Для цитирования: Kleiner Yu. A., Piotrovsky D. D. From Epic to Ballad: the Faroese 'SjurSur Cycle' // Скандинавская филология. 2019. Т. 17. Вып. 1. С. 134145. https://doi.org/10.21638/11701/spbu21.2019.108
История Сигурда (фар. Шуур) Змееборца, известная во всех основных германских традициях (кроме английской), представлена текстами со второй половины XIII по середину XIX века, древнеисландской «Старшей и Младшей Эддой», немецкой «Песнью о Нибелунгах» и тремя фарерскими балладами «Нибелунговского цикла» («Кузнец Реин», «Бринхильд» и «Хёгни»), записанными В. У Хаммерсхаймбом (1851). Первая часть фарерского цикла (до убийства Сигурда) сходна с древнеисландской, вторая — с немецкой традицией. (Граница между частями проходит внутри второй баллады, «Бринхильд».) В древнеис-ландском героическом эпосе сюжеты располагаются в виде последовательности,
что в каждом конкретном случае предполагает продолжение (соответствующую предысторию); в мифологическом эпосе сюжет ограничен пределами песни. В этом отношении фарерские баллады о Шууре/Сигурде, героические по своему содержанию, сближается с исландским мифологическим эпосом: в обоих случаях границы сюжета и песни совпадают. И древнеисландский эпос, и фарерские баллады содержат черты устного бытования (формульный стиль, повторы и т. п.), характеризующегося вариативностью, не свойственной фиксированным текстам литературной традиции. Процесс становления последней в случае баллад («песен-танцев») обладал спецификой, связанной с условиями бытования и активной ролью в нем аудитории, что предполагало знание текста каждым участником танца-пения. Благодаря этому баллады еще до момента записи приобретали некоторую стабильность, превращаясь после записи в фиксированные тексты, которые внутри литературной традиции объединялись в отдельный уникальный жанр.
Ключевые слова: Сигурдовский цикл, Нибелунги, древнеисландский эпос, фарерские баллады, устное бытование, письменная фиксация.
Юрий Александрович Клейнер
профессор, доктор филологических наук, Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет, Россия, 199034, Санкт-Петербург, Университетская наб., д. 7-9 E-mail: y.kleyner@spbu.ru Yuri Kleiner
Professor, Dr., Dr. (habil.) St. Petersburg State University,
7-9, Universitetskaya nab., St. Petersburg, 199034, Russia E-mail: yurikleiner@hotmail.com; y.kleyner@spbu.ru
Дмитрий Дмитриевич Пиотровский
кандидат филологических наук, доцент,
Первый Санкт-Петербургский государственный
медицинский университет им. акад. И. П. Павлова,
Россия, 197022, Санкт-Петербург, ул. Льва Толстого, д. 6-8
E-mail: dimapiotrovsky@hotmail.com
Dmitry Piotrovskii
PhD of Philology, Associate Professor,
Pavlov First St. Petersburg State Medical University
6/8, ul. L'va Tolstogo, St. Petersburg 197022, Russia
E-mail: dimapiotrovsky@hotmail.com
Received: March 12, 2019 Accepted: April 22, 2019
